The Evolution of Spanish Monarchy and State: Absolute Power and Unification - Prof. 9341, Apuntes de Marketing

¡Descarga The Evolution of Spanish Monarchy and State: Absolute Power and Unification - Prof. 9341 y más Apuntes en PDF de Marketing solo en Docsity! LESSON 5: UNIVERSAL MONARCHY 1. OVERVIEW OF THE OLD REGIME On October 19, 1469, Isabella –heir to the crown of Castile- married Ferdinand –heir to the crown of Aragon-. Despite the opposition of the King of Castile Henry IV and the blood relationship of the spouses, the semi-clandestine union would form the way to Spain’s political unity. 350 years later, on 1812, the Constitution of Cadiz liquidated the Old Regime, recognizing the sovereignity of the Spanish people, giving way to a liberal regime and the Constitutional State. The Modern Age, as an historical period, is dominated by monarchical absolutism as a common denominator. This absolutism, after the Catholic Monarchs, had two main stages: the one coinciding with the Habsburg monarchy (16-17th) and the first Bourbons (18th). In general terms, the two forms differed due to the global prominence achieved by Spain, which declined France due to their different politics and economics, ideological transformation, and because of the pluralism typical of the organization of the State in the 16 and 17th. a) The Monarchy of the Catholic Kings The reign of the CCKK entailed the merging of the Crowns, through their respective monarchs, even though their maintained their distinct political structures. The national unity achieved allowed Castile, Aragon, and later Navarra, to be governed by their own laws and to maintain their Cortes and other institutions, with legally heterogeneous territories subject to the same kings. The unification of the Crowns was not that of two equal and proportionate political entities: they were very different and exerted unequal levels of power. Castile was much larger than Aragon and more densely populated. It was an homogeneous entity with one government, one Cortes, one tax system, one language and no internal Customs. All this contrasted with the plurality of Aragon, which had a system of pact-based government that diluted royal power. Castile had a more powerful trading system dounded on the wool business and its relations with France and the Nordic countries. Finally, Las Indias were incorporated into the Crown of Castile. Political unity would be achieved with the taking of Granada (1492) and the incorporation of Navarre (1512). In the former year, America was discovered, and fervour for religious unity was intensified by the surrender of the last Muslim stronghold. This gave rise to the expulsion of the Jews. During the 15th and 16th expansion in the Atlantic was conslidated, with dominion over the Canaries, the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples (1504) and the taking of African territories. This dynamic marked the rise of the Empire and Spain’s advantageous position in a new international scheme. b) The Habsburg Monarchy After the death of King Ferdinand in 1516 the two crowns were inherited by Charles V (I of Spain), who received that of Germany and was crowned Emperor. With him the government of the House of Austria (Spanish Habsburgs) started and lasted until 1700. Charles V’s reign was characterized by territorial expansion, political and religious crisis, internal convulsions and the organization of the political apparatus to administrate the Empire. His sucessor, Philip II would culminate this territorial expansion by incorporating Portugal (1580). Philip II’s reign was marked by the global movement of the Counterreformation, internal uprisings in Aragon and the Alpujarras, major European conflicts, and the consolidation of a weltpolitik where political and religious interests consolidated in a context of absolute global hegemony. The catastrophe of the Armada and the economic imbalances of the late 16th prevented the continuation of Spain’s political hegemony. A crisis was inminent by the late 16th century, deep and unstoppable in the next. Under the reign of Philip III racial and religious tensions led to the expulsion of te Moors, boosting the country’s economic decline. In the mid 17th there were major international and national difficulties (such as the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and that of the Pyrenees in 1659). These events were evidence of Spain’s loss of control over Europe. Perhaps the crisis of the 17th was not only Spanish, however Spain had a special inability to accept modernity. Rather, it was stuck on traditionalism and nostalgia, unable to meet the challenges of new times. c) The monarchy of the first Bourbons The death of King Charles II without an heir lead Spain to be governed by the Bourbon Dynasty, whose first monarch Philip V reigned after defeating the Austrian aspirant in the War of the Spanish Succession. 18th Europe was characterized by the Enlightenment, an ambitions movement for renewal that flourished during the second half. Until the reign of Charles III non-innovative traditionalism still prevailed, finally overcome in 1760 by the application of new ideas that had been adopted in Europe before. The Enlightenment represented a revolution from the top down, featuring centralized power and absolutism (Enlightened Despotism), while its embracement of more modern ideas and developments led traditionalists to fear and distrust it. Hese ideas were not propagated at universities but rather through academies and associations such as Economic Societies of Friends of the Country, which at meetings spread the ideas coming from France. From the perspective of law and politics, the confrontation between the Crown of Aragon (who supported the Austrian aspirant) and Philip V led to the suppression of its legal-pblic organization and the application of that of Castile through the Decretos de Nueva Planta. The government went under a deep transformation. 2. LEGAL AND RELIGIOUS UNIFICATION d) The situation under the Habsburgs The alliance of Crowns of Castille and Aragon and the incorporation fo Navarre left intact the peculiar political organization of its territories. The monarchs were not titled “kings of Spain” bur rather kings of the domains forming part of both Crowns. The unity of personal power in the Spanish monarchy and its pluralism had a twofold effect. On the one hand the political entity of the Crowns faded away, supplanted by that of kingdoms or realms. On the other, the king ruled in those kingdoms, manors and territories, but with different legal title (king, count, duke), which resulted in different power. The king ruled with greater ease in Castile than in Aragon, whose organization was very disparate. This fragmentation and pluralism were seen by the architects of the absolute State as a major obstacle that needed to be overcome. e) Bourbon conformity: Los Decretos de Nueva Planta What the Count Duke of Olivares could not bring about as a political plan in the 17th was achieved by force in the 18th after the confrontation between the Crown of Aragon and Philip V. When the latter emerged victorious he replaced Aragon’s organization with Castilian formulas via the Decretos de Nueva Planta, a new organizational structure to the Crown’s different bodies. With the War od Sucession still recent, Philip V issued a first decree (1707) explaining in respnse to his subjets’ rebellion, the abolition of their fueros (political privileges) and the introduction of the Castilian law. Despite having the resistance, Valencian law was annulled. In Aragon things were not as radical and the kingdom was not as affected by the imposition of these. There, the decree went ignored, thus, another decree revived part of the law, and the figure of the commander general was introduced, wielding full political powers, and the courts were organized according to the Castilina model. In this way Aragon recovered its privated law. The war had not yet ended, as it would last until 1713. Decrees continued to be issued, from this date characterized by regulations focused on justice reform and less on military matters, with the appearance of well developed texts. Under the new circumstances the decree of Jnuary 1716 took on special imporance, aimed at Catalonia, from whence certain allies of Philip V had fled to castile during the confrontation, to later return and join the reform efforts. That provision, the Nueva Planta de la Audiencia del Principado de Cataluña, enacted on that date and designated the capitan general as the representative of the king, and gave way to the establishment of an Audiencia whose structure had been extensively debated in the supreme bodies of the Countil of Castile. Also respected was the survival of the Catalonian private aw. The Council of Castile had already recommended the king a series of measures to restrict the use of the Catalan language, and the 1716 decree stated that cases brought before the Court were to be exclusively in Castilian. In Mallorca a decree featured the same approach of maintaining Mallorcan private law while abolishing its former political, administrative and judicial organization. f) Religious unification. The expulsion of Jews and Moors Jews, Moors and Chritians harmoniously coexisting was a true scenario in certain periods of medieval Spain, but it became illusory in the new modern State. Firstly there was a rise in anti-Semitic sentiment which peaked in the late 14th with masacres of Jews. Secondly, because the unity of Christian faith became considered a core principle of the State, which had to be protected. Popular anti-semitism coincided with the aim to promote conversions and to pursue false converts who remained faithful to their previous religion. The establishment of the Inquisition did not completely solve the problem. Therefore, the expulsion of Jews was viewed as a solution to eliminate fights and to stop dealing with false converts. The problem of institutionalizing the monarchy emerged in the 16th because territories retained their own political structures. Institutionalizing the monarchy is equipping the State with general administrative and governmental bodies and coordinating them harmoniously. Thus, it was necessary for the monarchy to become an autonomous administrative entity and something more than an extension of the king, reigning here and there with heterogeneous powers and different legal titles. The institutionalization of a council-based structure was refleted in “polysynody”. Under this system, the central government implemented a network of bodies and councils, some inherited and others created. The Councils consisted of a president and several advisors and secretaries. They advised the kings on matters and sometimes exercised legislative, administrative and judicial powers. Over time they were organized hierarchically. In the 16th the kings began to create Juntas to fasten the work. The councils were classified in (1) those with authority over the entire monarchy, (2) those of the government of different territories, (3) that of Navarre, (4) those of the chamber and (5) those administrating the Crown of Castile. a.2.2. Councils with jurisdiction throughout the monarchy. These were the Councils of State, War and Inquisition. The Council of State was the monarchy’s central body, institutionalizing the new form of political organization, with its president being the monarch’s highest advisor. It was composed mainly of nobles, and controled the most serious issues of common concern, including international politics, economic issues, conflict between Councils and the censorship of books. The War Council was chaired (presidido) by the king. It was responsible for proposing military commanders, the construction of fortifications, weapon manufacturing etc and matters of war in general, although the Council of State also dealt with issues of war/peace. It had two secretaries corresponding to the Land/Sea, and included members of the Council of State in addition to high military officials. Sometimes both joined to create a Council of State and War. The Council of the Inquisition –known as the Suprema- was the central governing body of the Holy Office and was responsible for the State’s engagement in the Inquisition activity. The Suprema arose in 1488, ten years after the establishment of the Inquisition, strengthening the theory that at first it was a deeply religious tribunal and later the subject of political manipulation. The Suprema exercised strict control over all the lower inquisitorial courts. a.2.3. Governing councils of the various territories. These were the councils of Castile, Aragon, Las Indias, Portugal and Flanders. The Council of Castile was the Royal Council par excellence, and had the premier position in the hierarchy of Councils. It had significant administrative, judicial and legislative functions. The latter, by receiving petitions from the Cortes and also through autos acordados. Its president was a central figure to the functioning of the State. The Council of Aragon was composed of seven people, a vicechancellor as president, five advisors called regents and another who was the general treasurer of the Crown. The first six were lawyers, two Aragonese, two Catalonian and two Valencians. It had a secondary position, after the Council of Castille. Colonial affairs were first handled by some members of the C. of Castille but in 1524 an independent Consejo de Indias was instituted. Its great importance declined under the reign of Philip II when financial administration overseas fell. The Council of Italy, who controlled Naples, Sicily and Milan, was composed of six regents (3 spanish and 3 italians). Finally the Council of Portugal was created, and also the Council of Flanders. a.2.4. An atypical territorial Council: the Royal Council of Navarre All the councils officially resided at court except the Royal Council of Navarre, whose headquarters (sede) in Pamplona were respected by Ferdinand after the merging of Navarre and Castille, in order to favour the kingdom’s people. The body was composed of a president, six advisors and other staff. The viceroy (virrey) participated in the administration of the Council but was not its president, but the regent was, appointed by the monarch from one of the Castilians of the assembly. The Council of Navarre had judicial, governamental and even legislative powers. It was a supreme court, hearing civil and criminal cases, having significant powers of government especially regarding to economic issues, and dictated autos acordados representing the will of the Council without the viceroy’s involvement. a.2.5 The Chamber Councils They were charged with proposing different appointments and favors. Founded in 1518, in the early years they were composed by the president of the Royal Council and 3 of his advisors. Their reorganization took place in 1588 when they were structured into 3 secretariats corresponding to their activities of gracia (clemency), patronato (patronage) and justice. It was a powerful, influential entity. a.6. Castilian Administrative Councils This group included the Councils of Orders and the super important Council of Finance. In 1523 the C. of Finance was established as the central body of the Spanish tax and financial apparatus. The Council acquired increasing importance and in the mid 16th it was composed of a president, 3 advisors from the one of Castile and senior accountants. It controled revenues and subsidies, proposing plans and means to increse volume and better collects monies due. It also had judicial functions related to tax collection. b) The king’s secretaries The monarchs granted many people the title of “secretary”. There were three types: (1) those who held the title as a simple distinction of honor without affecting their duties, (2) royal secretaries who were also secretaries of Councils, and (3) those forming part of the king’s inner circle who served him as private secretaries and played a key role in the administrative apparatus. c) The Secretaries of State The Secretaries of the Council of State were always secretaries of the king. In the early years of the Council there was only one secretariat but in 1567 Philip II divided it into two: North-Italy, which handled the affairs of Northern Europe, and Mediterranean and Italy. These two endured until the 18th century although sometimes they were handled by the same person. Between 1630-31 there was a 3rd secretariat of State, that of Spain, created to oversee the Peninsula, America, Africa etc. The importance and power of the S. of State had a cause: although the king served as the president of the Council he did not usually attend meetings, whether because his presence would prevent members from acting freely or because he was busy with other affairs. Since the monarch did not attend, but privately met the secretaries of State, they came to represent the king’s invisible control in the monarchy’s supreme body. They became powerful figures who controled the State. Their power peaked in the mid 16th, and under Philip the decline of this institution started. With the Council consolidated, there was a single secretary who monopolized the king’s confidence. Formal communication with the monarch consisted of despachos a boca, meetings at which the king’s secretary informed the monarch of some matters. When the valido appeared on scene in the 17th he supplanted the secretary as the figure engaging in verbal communications with the monarch and enjoying his trust. The secretaries ended up as subordinaries of the valido. d) Private secretaries and the Secretary of the Universal Office Private S. were those that without being secretaries of the State, enjoyed the king’s confindence and direct communication. Their political influence was significant before the S. of State came to scene. In the 17th characterized by the rise of validos, the kings no longer convened cabinets of private secretaries. In this way the collapse of the bureaucratic staff was completed: the secretaries of State had been marginalized. Also, the central administration experienced a serious decline. A solution was seeked through he figure of the “Secretary of the Office”, an expert that whould take charge of the central office, receiving papers from all the councils. Over time an autonomous office was constituted, responsible for all kinds of matters, whose head was the Secretary of the Universal Office. Reporting to the valido and the prime minister, this new figure lacked political standing and his function was always ridiculed, but thanks to him the machinery of the system was not completely lost. Private and State secretaries usually came from intermediate classes and were trained from childhood for these offices. e) The Juntas The juntas were unstable and imprecise, created in the 16th and that reached their fullest development in the 17th during the reign of Philip 4. They were created to deal with all kinds of problems, large and small. There were also brief juntas along with others that lasted for centuries. During the 17th the juntas multiplied, perhaps because the validos found their control and creation easied and more convenient, and could exploit them to marginalize the councils. There were some cupreme juntas of the general government that actually stood above the councils. These were the Junta de Noche, the Junta de Gobierno, the Junta Suprema de Estado. There were also many others of lower ranks. f) The Bourbon ministerial system Philip 5 began his reign with an inefficient system and a poor reputation. Before, matters had been handled with slowness and inactivity by the network of councils and royal secretaries. Disagreements between councils were frequent, leading to delays in the resolution of issues. The system was unworkable by the 18th but it was not easy to phase out due to its complexity and sense of attachment to a glorious past that it evoked. Philip 5 decided to implement a gradual reform which consisted on gradually relegating the councils to a secondary position, progressively depriving them of content, and building a parallel structure of individuals resposible for their areas. Moreover, the system of Councils, ineffective, was already being eclipsed by the “Office Secretary”, one individual. The solution was to empower this official at the expense of the councils. At the same time a system of secretaries was established to handle the administrative sectors previously entrusted to the councils. However gien the prestige of the S. of State and the dark antecedents of the Office Secretaries, the latter would be known in the 18th was State and Office Secretaries. g) The origins of the Council of Ministers: The “Supreme State Junta” The State and Office Secretaries of the various branches handled their affairs with the king separately. In addition, after the Secretariat of the Universal Office gave way to a sytem of several departments, there were attempts to bring the minister together into a collective office. Until 1878 these attempts produced only unstable meetings but in that year an order was issued to convene an assembly to be attended by all ministers and only them, in order to adopt the appropriate resolutions. This assembly was the Supreme State Junta, which constituted the first Council of Ministers in Spanish history. The Supreme Junta was thought to be a permanent body and to meet once a week to address matters of general interest. In theory it laked a chair but in practice it was the Secretary of the Office of State. The SJ operated consistely since its creation in 1792 and the Council of State resumed its activity after the Junta’s extinction. Cheat meal 3.7. Medidas de dispersion absolutas Se utilizan para medir dispersiones de distribuciones individuales, tienen poco valor o son poco representativas aunque vayan acompañadas de promedios. Una primera aproximación para medir la dispersion en una distribución es calcular su recorrido. Varianza y sus propiedades Es la medida dispersión absoluta por excelencia. Su problema es que viene debilidad en unidades². Interesa que sea la menor posible, cuanto menor sea, menor es la dispersión y más representativa es la media. Nunca puede ser negativa. Se puede calcular en función de momentos respecto al origen. Desviación típica y sus propiedades Es la raiz cuadrada positiva de la varianza. También se llama standard deviation. Se representa como Cuanto menor sea, mayor es la representatividad de la media. Ventaja: las unidades no vienen medidas al cuadrado. Ejemplo 19 (ejercicio todo a un euro). Ejemplo 20 (precios de libros de probabilidad) 3.8. Medidas de dispersión relativas Si tenemos dos distribuciones de frecuencias cuyos promedios son P1 y P2 y queremos saber cual es más representativo, no podemos compararlos Único momento bidimensional: r=s=1; No tiene significado estadístico, sirve para el cálculo de la covarianza. 4.3.2. Momentos respecto a las medias marginales Se representa por Mide la posición de los valores de la variable respecto a las medias marginales, en base a sus frecuencias. Casos particulares: Momentos de segundo orden 4.4. Independencia estadística Dos variables estadísticas son independientes entre sí cuando la variable x no se ve afectada por los valores que pueda tomar la variable y (y viceversa). La forma de demostrar la independencia estadística es usando las frecuencias absolutas. El valor de la covarianza en caso de independencia estadística es cero. Calculamos el momento bajo la condición de independencia estadística: Luego la covarianza, cuando son independientes entre sí, será: Ejemplo: Sea la siguiente tabla de doble entrada: a) Momentos con respecto al origen. b) Momentos con respecto de las medias marginales. TEMA 5: LA VINCULACIÓN ENTRE VARIABLES ESTADÍSTICAS. CORRELACIÓN Y REGRESIÓN 5.1. Planteamiento general de la correlación. 5.2. Coeficiente de correlación lineal. Interpretación. 5.3. Planteamiento general de la regresión. 5.4. Regresión lineal, coeficiente de regresión. Interpretación. 5.1. Correlación Para el análisis de la dependencia partimos de que no se cumple la condición necesaria y suficiente de independencia. Para el estudio de este apartado las variables son dependientes. 5.2. Coeficiente de correlación lineal. Interpretación La cantidad de dependencia entre variables se mide con el coeficiente de correlación: No tiene unidades de medida y su signo depende del signo de la covarianza. Se encuentra: -1< r > 1 Intepretación de los valores de r: · r > 0, existe correlación lineal positiva o directa. · r < 0, existe correlación lineal negativa o inversa. · r = 1, existe correlación lineal positiva perfecta o directa perfecta. · r = 0, existe correlación lineal nula (incorrelación). Si las variables son independientes, la covarianza es 0 y el coeficiente de correlación “r” es 0. El reciproco no tiene por que cumplirse, si la covarianza es 0 no quiere decir que sean independientes, sino que la dependencia lineal es nula, pero puede depender según otro tipo de función. 5.3. Planteamiento general de la regresión A partir de la información disponible se busca la estructura de la dependencia que mejor explique el comportamiento de la variable y a través del conjunto de valores de la x con las que se supone que está relacionada. 5.4. Regresión lineal, coeficiente de regresión. Interpretación Recta de regresión de Y/X Se puede escribir de dos formas: b: pendiente de la recta a: término independiente de la recta Recta de regresión de X/Y Las rectas de regresion se cortan en el punto de las medias El coeficiente de correlación “r” es la media de los coeficientes de regresión. Ejercicio 2 (la lluvia en el zoo)