History and culture of the british Isles, Apuntes de Historia

¡Descarga History and culture of the british Isles y más Apuntes en PDF de Historia solo en Docsity! HISTORY AND CULTURE OF THE BRITISH ISLES: Mid-term exam The difference between England, Great Britain, the United Kingdom and the British Isles England Great Britain: is the big island. As a geographic term, it includes all of mainland England, Scotland, and Wales. Politically, this is expanded out to include all the smaller islands of those countries too. United Kingdom: is the Sovereign state composed of the constituent countries of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. British Isles: is a term that has historically been used by the British to describe all of Britain, Ireland, and the neighbouring islands. BamsHisues: Population and size Ireland> 4.7m, 84,421 km? United Kingdom> 66m, 242,842 km? - England > 55.6m, 129,634 km? - Scotland > 5.3m, 77,179 km? - Wales > 3.1m, 20,637 km? - — Northern Ireland > 1.8m, 13,438 km? The islands Within Britain there are differences of climate between north and south, east and west > affect social and economic life, population and politics The north is colder than the south; it rains more in the west; the south and east are mostly flat. Since the South and east had better agricultural conditions > more population since the conditions are better > most political power Britain's history has been closely connected with the sea because until modern times, traveling across water was easier than traveling across roads. Moreover, Britain has often been saved from danger by its surrounding seas. As a result, Britain's history and national sense > shaped by the sea BRITAIN'S PREHISTORY Prehistory> before history> before written records (in the British Isles around the Roman invasion in 43BC) The i¡sles have always attracted settlers, invaders and immigrants who brought wealth, faith, conflict, culture Modern-day English, Scottish, Welsh £ Irish people come from mixed roots >Result of varied settlements, internal migrations and assimilation Britain has not always been an island > became one after end of last Ice Age Oldest human fossils > around 500,000 BC Stone tools found from around 250,000 BC The temperature changed often > Britain became uninhabitable until around 50,000 BC 10,000 BC > Ice Age was ending > Britain was populated by groups of hunters, gatherers and fishers Nomadic > followed herds of animals (e.g. deer) 5000 BC > Britain became an island 3000 BC > Neolithic people crossed the sea from Europe. They came from Iberian peninsula, Europe, or North Africa Stone age Britain Neolithic = New Stone Age; end of the Stone Age era (12,000 BC to 1,700 BC in Northern Europe) These people kept animals and grew corn crops > agriculture Earlier public works > burial mounds (found in the south of Britain) Another example of a construction were the “causewayed enclosures-. The theory is that they were used for religious ceremonies, or for festivals + not permanently occupied but used occasionally They also built settlements, places to live in which indicated an organized society >Skara Brae from 3180 BC to 2500 BC (Orkney, Scotland): made of stones about 12 houses for 50 people. They had toilets, fireplaces, beds, shelves, ornaments... + COMMUNITY They built henges (circles of stone) > centers of religious, political and economic power. The most famous one is Stonehenge > built in separate stages over a period of more than 1000 years Purpose > mystery Historians believe Stonehenge was a sort of capital Probably, the political authority of the area around Stonehenge was recognized over a very large area Many stones were brought from more than 150 km away There were other structures and burial mounds closeby It inspired other stone henges in Ireland, Scotland... Beaker people After 2400 BC > new groups arrived from Europe > Beaker people influential since they became the leaders of British society > They are known for the pottery beakers (a small drinking vessel) Arrival marked by first individual graves (as opposed to previous communal burial barrows) Brought skills to make bronze tools > replaced stone Stonehenge > most important center until 1300 BC New form of society in southern England > settled farming class >New farmers became wealthy and powerful Probably spoke an Indo-European language Hill-forts replaced henges as the centers of local power. Most of these were in the southeast > suggests that the land supported more people there Shift of power eastwards: O thelocal people had more advanced metalworking skills O thearea was better suited for farming Hill-forts dominated Iron Age Britain since they were the seat of power for the Clan chief because of their Dynamic and expanding culture. O Arable and pastoral lands were outside the walls of the forts O Rudimentary towns with recognizable streets It wasn't until right before the first Roman invasion that we have evidence of great leaders in the British Isles. However, it is believed that a hierarchy existed before. There were probably chieftains or another form of authority > theory supported by large constructions and grave goods Neolithic people left a mark on their environment > villages, fields, monuments, ... 3000 BC > around 200,000 people lived in the British Isles 2200 BC > beginning of Bronze Age 1000 BC > beginning of Iron Age TIMELINE 10,000 BC: end of | 5000 BC: Britain had | 3000 BC: Neolithic | 2400 BC: Beaker | 700 BC: arrival of the Ice Age become an island people arrived > | people > bronze | Celts > iron tools stone tools tools The celts 700 BC > progressive arrival of the Celts that came from central Europe and further east It is believed they assimilated into the existing societies = Atfirst, the Germanic tribes raided Britain and left = AD 430 > began to settle = Warlike and illiterate = Events collected in Bede's (he was an English monk who lived 300 years later) Ecclesiastical History of the English People helped historians = Three main groups of Germanic tribes: = The Anglo-Saxon migrations gave the larger part of Britain its new name > England = British Celts > fought raiders but were pushed westwards over a period of 100 years Jutes > settled in Kent and along the south coast Angles > settled in the east and the north Midlands Saxons > settled between the Jutes and the Angles 2 Many were driven into the mountains in the far west, called “Weallas” by the Saxons > Wales (“land of foreigners”) = Others were driven to what is now Scotland and Ireland "Many Celts stayed behind, and many were enslaved by the Saxons = Hardly anything is left of Celtic language or culture in England, except for the names of some rivers > Thames, Avon... as well as the names of two large cities + London and Leeds The anglo-saxons = Strength of Anglo-Saxon culture days of the week > named after Germanic gods (Tig - Tuesday, Wodin - Wednesday, Thor - Thursday...) names of cities > “-ing” meant folk or family (Reading, Hastings); “ham” meant farm, “ton” meant settlement (Birmingham, Nottingham, Southampton) = Anglo-Saxons established kingdoms, some of which still exist in county or regional names today: Essex (East Saxons) Sussex (South Saxons) Wessex (West Saxons) Middlesex (Middle Saxons) East Anglia (East Angles) = The most powerful kingdoms were Wessex, Northumbria and Mercia = King Offa of Mercia (757-796) claimed “kingship of the English” in the 8th c. He was very powerful PA ; as pl e ME sesion A mm a A 2 eramee| Employed thousands of men to build an earth wall, or dyke, the length of the Welsh border, to keep the Celts out Known as Offa's dyke His power did not survive after his death = Old English (5*- 11 century) Earliest form of the English language Appeared in Britain with the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons Spoken until Norman conquest > then Middle English 7 th century > beginning of Old English literature O Bede's poems and other works (7th century) O Beowulf, epic poem (disputed > 700 - 1000 AD) = The Saxons created institutions that made the English state strong for the next 500 years King's Council, or “Witan” > formal body by the 10th century, issuing laws and charters (Parliament) - Initially composed of senior warriors and churchmen - Not democratic; the King could ignore its advice The Witan's authority was based on its right to choose kings, and to agree on the use of the king's laws Without its support, the authority of the king was in danger Today > king or queen has a “Privy Council” > a group of advisers on the affairs of state The Saxons divided the lands into the new administrative areas, or “shires” They remained almost exactly the same for 1000 years “Shire” > Saxon word; “County”-> Norman word (both are still used) Each shire had a “Shire reeve” (administrator) > sheriff Anglo-Saxon technology changed the shape of English> agriculture - Celts> Small, square fields; light plough - — Anglo-saxons>heavier plough> useful for heavier soils - However>required many oxen to pull it - Consequence> change in land ownership and organization > more cooperation between villagers - Village land was divided into various fields >then into long strips> given to families - Each field would have its particular use - — Basis of English agriculture until 18% century Beginning of a class system> kings, lords, soldiers, workers on the land The development of the “men of learning” >from the Christian Church - — Anglo-Saxons were not Christians >they drove the celts, who had become Christians, into the west and north - Anglo-Saxons were pegan - Rome missionaries went to Britain to convert them> Successful - — Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 607 - Christianity slowly spread all over the England - The Church increased the power of kings - — Agustine made little progress with ordinary people - He was interested in establishing an authority - — Itwasthe Celtic Church which brought Christianity to the ordinary people of Britain > bishops went from village to village teaching Christianity - It co-existed with the Roman Church, which became more influential Saxon kings helped the Church to grow - — The church also increased the power of kings>they received support from bishops>harder to question royal power - Kings had “God's approval” - — The church also increased the power of the English state through the establishment of monasteries Monasteries> places of learning and education (e.g. Westminster) King Alfred (ruled Wessex 871-899) >made the most use of the church He used the literate men of the church to - — Establish a system of law - — Educate the people - Write down important matters Next hundred years > many laws were made This process gave power to the people who could read and write>'increase of class divisions (rights and names were registered) Villages and towns built around Roman churches> increased local trade and economic contact with Europe The Vikings End of 8* century> new raiders tempted by Britain's wealth Vikings >came from Norway, Sweden, Denmark First > only raids 865>invaded, conquered and settled Britain The warring Anglo-Saxon kingdoms could not keep them out The Vikings accepted Christianity Did not disturb the local population The Vikings took most of England except Wessex>King Alfred continued to fight Alfred won in 878 and captured London Finally > treaty with Vikings where they divided the land Viking rule >recognized in the east and north of England under King Guthrum - — Territory called the Danelaw (included Vikings laws) - Restof the country> Alfred was king Viking legacy: Old Norse, the language spoken by the Vikings, influenced the language spoken in Britain at the time Words like “law”, “window”, “give”, “wrong”, “sky”, among others, come from Old Norse They were better at building ships and navigation Influenced legislation in Britain Who should be King? 950> England seemed rich and peaceful but soon > Danish Vikings started raiding westwards - — Saxon king, Ethelred (966-1016)> paid Vikings to stay away - — Taxed his people to get enough money> Danegeld (“Danish money”) - — Beginning of a regular tax system - — Taxation affected mostly ordinary villagers - — After Etherlred died->Cnut (leader of Danish Vikings) controlled much of England after invading ¡it (1016) - Became king because the Witan (the king's council) feared disorder - Rule by Danish King> better than no rule at all 1035> Cnut died; his son died in 1040 - The witan chose Edward (one of Ethelred's sons) to be king - Edward “The confessor”->more interested in the church than in kingship - — Heencouraged church building - Started a new church fit for a king outside London >Westmister abbey - Influence of Norman architecture in England >Edward had lived in Normandy - — Normans>descendant of the Vikings who had settled in northern France - — Adopted French language and Christianity Edward died in 1066>no heir The norman conquest (1066) Edward has brought many Normans to his English court from France>disliked by Saxon nobles particularly by most powerful family of Wessex >Godwinsons / Harold Gadwinson Harold Godwinson> chosen to be king by the Witan (no royal blood, but had shown bravery and ability) N Challenged by Duke William of Normandy Duke William of Normandy - William had two claims to the English trone: (chosen by the Witan) (chosen by Edward) O King Edward had promised it to him O Stephen de Blois (Henry's nephew) = Stephen raced to England to claim the crown. As result, the nobles in England had to choose > Stephen = Matilda invaded England four years later >Civil War between Matilda's army and Stephen's army where villages were destroyed and many people were killed. The war did not have winner >1153: AGREEMENT: Stephen could keep the throne if Matilda's son, Henry, could succeed him = 1154 > Stephen died and his family possessions and land united under Henry Il WILLIAM THE CONQUE 1066-1087 (d. 1087] WILLIAM Adela hi HENRY 1= Matilda he of RUFUS bum of 1100-1135 1087-1100 Bi (de 1135) (d. 1100) 1 STEPHEN lenry of B M c 1135-1154 , Empr 1 (de 1154) nchest 1 Anjou | " HENRY Il 1 € 1154-1189 (d. 1189) HOUSE OF PLANTAGENET: 2 Henry Il > first unquestioned ruler of England who would rule England for the next 300 years = Beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty (1154) = Henryll > product of Anglo-French culture. He married Eleanor of Aquitaine > his empire grew bigger = Destroyed many castles where nobles lived; made them live in undefended manor houses = England > provided Henry II with wealth = Heart ofempire > Anjou = He controlled a larger area in France than its king. As a result, Henry's nobles held land in England and France = Henry and Eleanor had two children: Richard and John = 1189 > Henry ll died = Followed by Richard |, known as Richard Coeur de Lion, or “Lionheart” - — Popular king but he spent hardly any time in England > his culture was French - 1199 > he was killed in France and followed by his brother, King John = KingJohn > unpopular - He was greedy and John increased the taxes and asked people to pay more than they had done before - 1204 > French king invaded Normandy and the English nobles lost their lands there > John tried but failed to protect them - LEGEND OF ROBIN HOOD: O The legend of Robin Hood is set during this time O He supported Richard | and opposed King John. He fought against oppression by stealing from the rich and giving money back to the poor O Symbol of Anglo-Saxon resilience against Norman oppression O Unknown if he was real or fictional - MAGNA CARTA (1215) O 1206 > John wanted to recapture Normandy O His lords no longer trusted him > wouldn't fight for him O They marched to London; joined by merchants O John was forced to sign a new agreement > the Great Charter, known as “Magna Carta” O Symbol of political freedom O The king promised all freemen e theright to a fair and legal trial e torespect the barons * tostop unfair taxes O During that time, most men were not freemen > serfs Magna Carta gave no real freedom to the majority of people in England The nobles who wrote it and forced King John to sign it did not intend for people to have freedom They wanted only to limit John's rights as feudal lord Magna Carta marks a clear stage in the collapse of English feudalism The nobles were not acting as vassals, but as a class The nobles made sure John's successors remembered Magna Carta and its promises Every king recognized Magna Carta until the 16th c. Beginning of the end of feudalism oo c000o00oo0oo * soldiers were paid to fight e vassals turned into tenants (paid money, not services) CHURCH AND STATE: When William the Conqueror reorganized the church, he created Norman bishops and gave them land on condition they pay homage to him. CONSEQUENCE > should the bishops obey the Church or the king? Conflict over power and money> Some kings and popes wanted to increase their authority 11th and 12th c. > the Church wanted the kings of Europe to accept ¡ts authority over both spiritual and earthly affairs Kings chose as bishops men who would be loyal to them >Disagreements between Church and kings Henry lI's friend Thomas Becket was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury in 1162 since Henry hoped he would help him bring the Church under his control. However, Becket refused and tried to resist the king >Four knights who supported the king murdered Becket in Canterbury. As a result, Christian Europe was shocked, and Thomas Becket became a saint of the Church >Many people went to his grave to pray Henry had to ask the pope's forgiveness >The pope took back some of the Church's privileges The nobles supported Henry ll, so the church couldn't do much more Later, in the 14th century, Geoffrey Chaucer would write The Canterbury Tales (collection of 24 stories, each told by a different character, all of them are on a pilgrimage to Canterbury to visit St Thomas Becket's grave)-> Very popular work that contributed to the popularization of the English vernacular in literature Later, King John would not only anger the Church but also the nobles - — Increased taxes and failed to protect nobles in Normandy - He quarrelled with the pope over who should be Archbishop of Canterbury - He was excommunicated from 1209 until 1213 BEGINNINGS OF PARLIAMENT: King John had signed Magna Carta unwillingly - He was not going to honour the agreement - The nobles rebelled and pushed John out of the SE - John died in 1216 > civil war was avoided His son, Henry lll, was 9 > under control of the nobles until aged 25 - — Spent a lot and had foreign advisers > upset the nobles The nobles acted as a class - Leader > Simon de Montfort (earl of Leicester) - 1258 > took over the government - Elected council of nobles > “parliament” - Took control of the treasury - Forced Henry lll to get rid of his foreign advisers - — The nobles were supported by the towns > wanted to get rid of Henry's heavy taxes Some of the nobles did not support the new council - Remained loyal to Henry lI - Helped Henry defeat and kill Simon de Montfort (1265) - — HenrylII > full royal authority BUT accepted the balance between kings and nobles - 1272 > Henry Ill died > succeeded by Edward I Edward | > brought together the first real parliament - The previous council included only nobles - — Nowthat feudalism was ending, less than 40% of the king's income came from the land - The king raised money through taxation - — Taxes could only be raised with the agreement of those wealthy enough to be taxed The Parliament of England consisted of two houses - House of Lords (clergy, aristocracy) - House of Commons O introduced by Edward | O “representative institution” O mixture of “gentry” (knights, wealthy freemen) and merchants > both produced/controlled England's wealth 1275 > Edward commanded each shire and each town (or borough) to send two representatives to his parliament. They did not want to give Edward money, but feared his anger > they became unwilling representatives of their local community Beginning of the idea of “no taxation without representation” The House of Commons contained a mixture of gentry (feudal ruling class) and merchants and freemen (end of feudalism) > cooperation > necessary for making all legislation Lords and Commons met together until end of 14th c. Frequent national assemblies > good for efficient running of government Support of middle classes in shires and towns > crucial Continuous coming and going between Westminster and the communities helped to create the unity of the nation Originally the speaker was the messenger who reported that had taken place in the Commons to the Lords Today> the speaker is a persona who moderates debates in the Commons chamber - She or He is a member of the parliament (MP) who has been elected to be Speaker by other MPs - During debates they keep order and call MPs to speak THE CONQUEST OF WALES (1277-1283): Background: - 5 century> Germanic tribes attacked and settled in Britain O British Celts fled west into Wales and Cornwall taking with them their language and Christianity O Constant border warfare between Welsh and Anglo- Saxons O King Arthur is associated with this period + Probably a 6* century Christian Celtic military leader + Popularised through Geoffrey of Monmouth's History of the Kings of Britain (1137) - Welsh people were kept out of England by Offa's Dyke O Poor and rocky land > small population IFA O Life was difficult o O Slavery was common O Many Welsh rulers were killed by fellow countrymen during the 10' and 11" centuries - The Normans did not invade Wales in a systematic way - William the Conqueror gave lands on the border between England and Wales to his lords = The Vikings founded Dublin - It would become the capital of Ireland - — Figure of high king> ruled all kingdoms = Brian Boru> seen as Ireland's greatest rule - Ruled from 1002 to 1014 - — Tried to create a single Ireland - — Brian Boru> died in the Battle of Clontarf (April 23, 1014) O Boru fought a Leinster-Dublin-Viking alliance in Clontarf, outside Dublin O His forces won, but he was killed O Battle > remembered as freeing the Irish from foreign domination O Itwas actually an episode of internal fight for provincial and regional sovereignty s THE INVASION OF IRELAND: - Pope Adrian IV granted the lordship of Ireland to the powerful King Henry II of England “to reveal the truth of the Christian faith to peoples still untaught and barbarous” - Beginning of England's formal chain to Ireland - 12% century>king of Leinster invited Normans of England to help him fight against his high king O Normans used this opportunity to enlarge their kingdom O England conquered Ireland in 1169 O The Normans easily defeated the Irish kings and tribes O The pope wanted to bring the Irish Celtic Church under his control - Henry ll made Dublin the capital - By 1250> %of the country was under Norman control O The church in Ireland would be loyal to the English crown O Fortified towns were built O Dublin castle (seat of British government in Ireland) was begun in 1204 CELTIC CULTURE + Oldorder . + Small, autonomous kingdoms . + Locally-based monastic communities e Loosely organized networks . ANGLO-NORMAN CULTURE New style Territorial kingdoms -> held together by ties similar to feudalism Centralized religious orders Subordinated towns - — Significance 01 1107: Us Invasion ana SL. Pau s conversion Lo Camstianity changed the destiny of Ireland O Normans gave Ireland a centralised administration Jury system introduced, legal system and courts of law o O Sheriffs appointed O Division into counties THE LATE MIDDLE AGES: = 14" century: - War with Scotland and France (Hundred Years War) - The Black Death - Peasants' revolt = Disastrous century for Britain (wars, plagues) - — 1/3o0f Europe's population died of plague Britain was fighting the French and the Scots: Britain was maintaining control of Ireland and Wales Increasing challenge to authority >less respect for kings WAR WITH SCOTLAND AND FRANCE: = 1314> Battle of Bannockburn> Robert Bruce vs. Edward III > Scottish victory = Repeated attempts of English kings to control Scotland. - CONSEQUENCE: Scotland looked for allies>“Auld Alliance”: Scots and French (would last until the 16" century). Agreement>whenever England would attack Scotland or France, they would protect each other. The alliance not always in use = French king's growing authority in France> wanted to control all the nobles> some were English (Aquitaine) who refused to recognize the French King's authority = Kingof France> interfered with British trade >Threat to England's wealth = Duke of Burgundy (area of profitable trade) allied with England against France (fear of economic collapse) THE HUNDRED YEAR WAR: = England went to war because it could not afford the destruction of its trade with Flanders (through Burgundy) = Rich merchants thought this war was necessary = Lords, knights and soldiers >wanted to win riches and lands = Edward lll > declared war on France in 1337 and claimed the right to the French crown = The Hundred Years War lasted until 1453>the English crown lost all its possessions in France except Calais (northern French port) a Atfirst>many English victories, but the French never stopped fighting until they got their land back = The Scots followed the “Auld Alliance” and attacked the English to distract them from the French = Soon Edward lll gave up trying to control the Scots = The struggle would continue into the 15" century = THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY: - Edward ll O King for 50 years (1327-1377) was considered a great king O Brought authority back to the monarchy O Strengthened rule of law O Introduced “Code of chivalry”>the perfect knight served God, the king and defended any lady in need e Edward lll created the Order of the Garter + Motto: “Honi Soit Qui Mal Y Pensé” (let him be ashamed who sees wrong in it) + Inspired by the legend of King Arthur + Chivalry>useful way of persuading men to fight e Idea that war was noble and glorious = HUNDRED YEARS WAR (1337-1453) - — Conflict between France and England - — England claimed the right to the throne of France - — French king interfered with English trade - England declared war - England lost all of its French possessions except Calais - Intermittent fighting> “chevauchées” >war method to weaken the enemy by burning their territory - The objective of the war was NOT to conquer more territory but to weaken the French and preserve English territories in France - 1356> King of France taken prisoner - Temporary peace in 1360> Treaty of Brétigny O France would pay England the free king O France would give England Aquitaine O Edward would renounce the claim to the throne - Endof peace in 1369 - 1375>French got Aquitaine back - Some decades of peace - — 1413> King Henry V of England - — Civil war in France between different dukes for control of government - — Opportunity for the English - Battle of Agincourt (1415) O Great English victory O One ofthe most famous battle in English history - The English won some more battles - — Joan of Arc (1412-1431) > commanded French armies and boosted their confidence - French victories - The different French dukes started accepting their new king Charles VII > united forces against English - 1453> end of war - Peace negotiations - French victory - TheFrench got back all their territories except for Calais - — Shock and anger in England - Impact of war> taxation O Taxation required consent from Commons in Parliament - Parliament became more and more important during the war - House of Commons became more influential - Beginning of Parliament's central constitutional role - Increase of patriotism in England - — 1350> Edward lll declared St George the patron saint of England - — Flag of England based on flag of St George THE BLACK DEATH: The Black Death (also known as the Great Plague) reached almost every part of Britain during 1348-1349. CONSEQUENCE: Millions of people died, whole villages disappeared >Devastation on a massive scale Fleas carried the disease and spread it through Eurasia After 5 years 25 million people were dead > % of the European population The plague did not disappear completely until 1660s It is estimated that 100 million people died in total CULTURAL IMPACT: - La Danse Macabre (“The Dance of Death”) - — Allegory on the universality of death > everybody dies regardless of origin - The Dance of Death unites everyone CONSEQUECES: - Wars paused or slowed down - Trade decreased - Increase in Anti-Semitism - Many workers died > less land was cultivated - Serfdom declined > less people were tied to the land - — Landowners paid proper wages to workers - Emergence of the yeoman farmer e price of land decreased so a number of peasants were able to buy some e middle class > below the gentry, above the peasants e important part of the agricultural economy RICHARD Il: Richard Il (reigned 1377-1399) He had to deal with - Warwith France - Nobles - Civil wars between the nobles who supported the House of Lancaster and the nobles who supported the House of York >Both families had claims to the throne of England - Henry VI, king at the time, was unpopular - Edward IV, son of the duke of York, won the throne in 1461 - After some conflicts, he was able to put Henry VI in the Tower of London, where he was probably murdered - Upon Edward's death. His two sons were too young to reign, so Edward's brother took the throne > Richard Il - A month after Richard took the Crown, the two princes were murdered - A century later, William Shakespeare wrote a play called Richard IIl in which he accused him of murder - Almost everyone believed Shakespeare; however, Richard's guilt has never proved - Richard lll was not popular and was disliked by both sides of the conflict - Both houses won and lost battles - Only the nobles and their armies fought - — Intheend it was Henry Tudor who won the throne - 1485> Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond and related to John of Gaunt, won against the Yorkists - — Hewas crowned > Henry VII > end of wards The sixteenth century: = Century of the Tudor rule (1485-1603) = Considered the most glorious period in English history - — Henry VII > built the foundations of a wealthy nation and a powerful monarchy - — Henry VIII > broke away from the Roman Catholic Church > English church became truly English - Elizabeth 1> defeated the Spanish army THE TUDORS: Henry VII-> Welsh origin = Had the same ideas as merchants and gentleman farmers = Based royal power on good business sense = Avoided conflicts with Scotland or France > bad for business "Ñ Made agreement with Netherland to trade = Henry VII made sure the authority of the law was strong = Hefined lawless nobles heavily > got more money = He wanted to make the Crown financially independent > He took lands from the nobles, he fined the nobles and taxed people for wars he did not fight = He didn't spend a lot of money > except a merchant fleet = Hewas popular with the merchant and gentry = Hewanted peace and prosperity = Diedin 1509 = The Crown had a lot of money = Henry VIII was not like his father > He was cruel, greedy and wasteful with money = Hewanted to become an important influence in European politics = France and Spain were very powerful > more than England = Henry wanted to ally himself to these powers but was unsuccessful = Wasted a lot of money on maintaining a court = Hisfather's money was gone = THE REFORMATION: - Henry VIII> always looking for new sources of money - — Henry VII> took land from nobles - —However> land owned by Church and monasteries had not been touched - Monasteries were unpopular> no longer centre of economic and social growth> monks were greedy - Henry VIII disliked the power of the Church in England - — Itwas an international organization> he could not control it - Henry was not powerful enough to influence the pope - The power of the Catholic Church in England could work against his own authority - The taxes paid to the Church reduced Henry's income - Henry wanted to centralize the king's authority - — Healso disliked the Church for another reason - 1510> married Catherine of Aragon O 1526> she hadn't had a son yet Henry tried to convive the pope to let him divorce her Catherine of Aragon's nephew was Charles V He was the Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain He had a lot of influence over the pope He did not want Henry to divorce Catherine O The pope did not want to anger Charles V and was forced to forbid Henry's divorce - — 1531> Henry forced the bishops to make him head of the Church of England> Act of Supremacy 1534 O “...the king our sovereign lord, his heirs and successors kings of the realm shall be taken, accepted and reputed the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England...” O Popular decision O Henry could now divorce Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn O He hoped she would give him a son - — Henry's break with Rome was political-> he wanted to - Control the Church - Keepthe Church's wealth in his kingdom - He believed in the Catholic faith, not Protestantism - However, to make the break with Rome legal, England became politically Protestant through Parliament - 1536-1539> Henry closed 560 monasteries and other religious houses in order to: O Make money O Become popular with the rising classes of landowners and merchants> gave or sold them these lands - The monks and nuns were thrown out - Henry remained loyal to Catholic religious teaching and executed Protestants who refused to accept it - — Died in 1547> left behind his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, and his three children O Mary (daughter of Catherine of Aragon) O Elisabeth (daughter of Anne Boleyn) O Edward (son of Jane Seymour) o00o00ooo Edward VI> became king as child Country ruled by council Members of council> Protestant reformers Had benefited from the sale of monastery lands They knew they could only keep their lands if they made England truly Protestant They slowly introduced Protestantism to the nations However, not everybody was happy about it Mary 1> queen when Edward died (age 16), 1533 - Shetook control of the kingdom - — Supported by ordinary people> angered by the greed of the Protestant nobles - Mary Was very strict in her beliefs - — Her marriage was controversial > married King Philip of Spain - Ordinary people disliked the marriage - Shesoon began to burn Protestants - — Her alliance with Spain also made her unpopular - Everything would change when Elizabeth | became queen in 1558 O Mary had considered killing her because she was a Protestant and leader for Protestant revolt ELISABETH I: Her mother had been executed when she was two > She had been tainted as a “bastard” and she had been disinherited by her father. Moreover, she had been raised as a Protestant Elisabeth became queen in 1558, at the age of 25. She had to deal with several problems: - — The English Reformation - — Foreign policy- especially Spain - Poverty - Parliament - Mary, Queen of Scots Religious problems: CATHOnOS. PROTESTANTS PURITANS Church authority is ir + Nolocation of church + Shicter Protestants Vatican City, Rome authority + Vantec to purify the Divorce is forbidden + Divorceis sometimes Church of England from The Pope is the head of allowec Rernan Catholic practices “he Church + Nocentral authority + Thoughtthe Reformation More ritualistic + Emphasison persoral feith had not been strict Churches often decorated |» Plain, simple churches enough lavichly + Use cfEnglish (tho Use of Latin vernacular) The Elizabethan Religious Settlement 1558 - Laws designed to unite the country - Goal>settle the conflict between Catholics and Protestants Helped develop Anglicanism Through the Act of Supremacy, Elisabeth became the Supreme Governor of the Church of England Took power away from the Pope Act of Uniformity 1559 - Use of a book of common prayer - Everybody had to go to Anglican church once a week or they would be fined - — The Anglican church retained some Catholic practices as well These two laws were an attempt to find a middle way between Catholicism and Protestantism Elisabeth's attempt to unite both Protestants and Catholics and find peace did not work Several Catholic people tried to assassinate her Elisabeth became more and more anti-Catholic She wanted to have full control However, she managed to avoid war The struggle between Catholics and Protestants continued to endanger Elisabeth's position for 30 years France and Spain were Catholic, and the kings wanted to marry Elisabeth, but she refused Danger from Catholic nobles in England who wanted to replace Elizabeth with Mary, Queen of Scots She was Elizabeth's closest living relative She was the heir to the English throne Constant fear of secret Catholic plot to kill Elizabeth Mary made enemies of some of her nobles, and escaped to England in order to avoid them Elizabeth saw her as too much of a threat, so she decided to imprison her The influence of humanism as well as the recent Protestant Reformation contributed to the increase in literacy Although richer people had more opportunities to study, soon schools started being founded = CULTURE = WALES England felt the effects of the Renaissance later than much of Europe because it was an island English thinkers were influenced by Dutch philosopher Erasmus Thomas More, for instance, wrote a study of the ideal nation called Utopia (1516) The Renaissance influenced religion, encouraging the Protestant Reformation Music was also developed and enjoyed a very fruitful period during the 16th century Also, England developed its own special kind of painting, the miniature portrait However, literature was England's greatest art form Playwrights like Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson and William Shakespeare became quite popular Shakespeare's plays were popular with both educated and uneducated people. His plays were often based on historical events, but he changed facts to suit public opinion In literature, poets were also quite popular, particularly those known as “soldier poets” > adventurers and/or soldiers as well as poets Some “soldier poets” include O Sir Edmund Spenser (The Faerie Queene) O Sir Philip Sidney (Astrophil and Stella) O Sir Walter Raleigh During the Tudor period, the monarchs did their best to bring Wales, Ireland and Scotland under their control Henry VII had been half Welsh and brought many Welshmen to his court He had a son named Arthur who died early His second son, Henry VIII, did not love Wales Henry VIIl was interested in power and authority through direct control He wanted the Welsh to become English. For instance, he put pressure on the Welsh to start using an English system of names by preventing Welsh names from being used in law courts and official papers By 1750 the use of Welsh names had almost disappeared Many Welsh people accepted wrong ways of pronouncing their names Last names like “Powell” or “Pugh” come from Welsh, who did not use a system of last names and instead expressed parent relations: “ap Hugh” = “son of Hugh” Between 1536 and 1543 Wales became joined to England under one administration English law was now the only law for Wales The Welsh gentry became part of the ruling English establishment Welshmen entered the English parliament English became the official language in Wales. As a result, Welsh was soon only spoken in the hills In the 16th c., the first Welsh Bible was printed. This became the basis on which the Welsh language survived Many people gave up speaking Welsh, but poets and singers continued to use it > spoken word The introduction of schools, using English, almost destroyed this aspect of Welsh culture The gatherings of poets and singers, known as eisteddfods, which had been going on since 1170, stopped They would begin again at the end of the 18th century = IRELAND The Normans had conquered Ireland under Henry Il in 1169 1169-1542 > The English monarch would be known as “the lord of Ireland” Generally, Anglo-Norman lords were in control Some of them became Gaelicized, and worked to preserve the Gaelic language and culture Although the English monarch claimed lordship over the whole island, the island was divided between O Norman Ireland (east / south) O Gaelic Ireland (west / north) Henry VIII wanted to bring Ireland under his authority He destroyed the power of Gaelic noble families He persuaded the Irish parliament to recognize him as king of Ireland He also tried to make the Irish accept his English Church Reformation However, in Ireland, the monasteries and the Church were still an important part of economic and social life The Irish nobility and gentry felt it was too dangerous to take monastic land Henry VIII failed to get what he wanted in Ireland He made things worse by bringing Irish nationalism and Catholicism together against English rule However, England didn't give up their claim to Ireland Ireland tempted Catholic Europe as a place from which to attack the English Elizabeth | and her soldiers saw the rebellious Irish population as wild and primitive, and treated them cruelly The Tudors fought the Irish often in order to make them accept their authority and their religion The Tudors managed to destroy the old Gaelic way of life and introduced English government They confiscated Irish lands and established plantations Ireland became England's first important colony The effect of English rule was greatest in the north (Ulster) > lands were taken and sold to English and Scottish merchants The native Irish were forced to leave or to work for these settlers in the north The Protestant settlers took most of the good land in Ulster Today, most good land in Ulster is owned by Protestants, whereas most poor land is owned by Catholics Derry was renamed Londonderry The colonization of Ireland did not make England richer It destroyed much of Ireland's society and economy. In addition, it laid the foundations for war between Protestants and Catholics in Ulster in the second half of the 20th century = SCOTLAND: In Scotland, the Scottish monarchs tried to introduce the same kind of centralized monarchy that the Tudors had developed It was difficult > Scottish economy was weaker and society was more lawless However, some monarchs made important steps forward, such as James IV, James V, Mary and her son James VI Attempting to control the Highland clans was problematic because they were quite strong and could potentially help them if war with England were to break out The monarchs had to be careful Scottish monarchs usually avoided war with England They made a peace treaty with Henry VII Henry VIII wanted Scotland to accept his authority In 1513, his army destroyed the Scottish army at Flodden > worst defeat the Scots ever experienced This battle increased the disagreement between the nobles who wanted to befriend England and those who remained loyal to France The Scottish monarch had to find a balance The English Reformation also increased uncertainty > Scots wanted to stay on the side of Catholic Europe Henry VIIl sent another army into Scotland to make James V accept his authority > Scots were defeated 1543 > Agreement to marry Mary (daughter of James) to Edward (son of Henry). However, soon the Scottish parliament turned down the agreement > many Scots did not want to be ruled by England THE STUARTS: Mary was sent to France, where she married the French king's son, Francis, in 1558. However, he died a couple of years later Mary returned to Scotland as queen and widow in 1561. She was Catholic, but Scotland had become officially and popularly Protestant The Scottish nobles who supported England had welcomed Protestantism for both political and economic reasons> It brought them closer to England Financially, the Scottish monarch could take over the wealth of the Church in Scotland > more lands for the nobles. However, the Scots did not give the monarch authority over the new Protestant Scottish Church (“Kirk”) The Kirk promoted education, making Scotland a better educated country than many of its European contemporaries until the end of the 19th c. Mary married Lord Darnley, who, like her, was a great-grandchild of Henry VIl and a Catholic In 1567, he was murdered - the culprit was never found, but evidence suggests Mary was involved Many lords disliked him because he was not a Protestant and thought he was a bad influence on Mary He was also insecure and gullible and murdered Mary's Italian secretary, Rizzio, after being persuaded by some lords The lords offered Mary two options: divorce or assassination Divorce would make her son, James, illegitimate Although she did not physically participate in Darnley's murder, it seems she somehow aided the killers Scottish society was shocked Mary's Catholicism, strong French culture and poor judgement destroyed her chance of inheriting the English throne She found herself at war with her Scottish opponents and was soon captured and imprisoned In 1568 she escaped to England, where she was held by Elizabeth | for 19 years before she was finally executed = The Stuart monarchs were less successful than the Tudors = They quarrelled with Parliament > Civil War = Therepublic that followed was even more unsuccessful = Soon, the dead king's son will be called back to the throne = Little by little, the monarchy will lose power = Itwill become a “parliamentary monarchy” controlled by a constitution = These changes resulted from a basic change in society = Economic power moved quickly into the hands of the merchant and landowning farmer classes = The Crown could no longer raise money or govern without their cooperation = These groups were represented by the House of Commons = Inreturn for money, the Commons demanded political power = James VI and | (1566-1625) became king of Scotland and of England, after Mary and Elizabeth | died, respectively = James's ascent to the throne was initially warmly welcomed by Catholics, who had been persecuted under Elizabeth's reign. In addition, James's wife, Anne of Denmark, was a Catholic and James himself seemed sympathetic to Catholics = James tried to accommodate different religions. However, he was displeased at the Catholics' increasing strength. Moreover, in 1603 two small Catholic plots to assassinate him were discovered, which made James more suspicious of Catholics = In 1604, James met with representatives of the Church of England at Hampton Court Palace. The conference's goal was to discuss some requests for reform by some Puritans. James kept wanting to accommodate everyone, so to please them he declared his hatred of Catholicism = THEGUNPOWDER PLOT: James | had continued Elizabeth's policy and had colonized Ulster, the northern part of Ireland, mainly with farmers from the Scottish Lowlands The Catholic Irish were removed from those lands Those Catholics who had worked for Protestant settlers were replaced by Protestant workers from Scotland and England 1641: rebellion in Ireland against the Protestant English and Scottish settlers. As many as 3000 people were killed, mostly in Ulster The rebellion started because the Catholic Irish wanted an end to anti-Catholic discrimination and to English rule. The rebellion spread, and soon the majority of the island was fighting >This was part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms The English Civil Wars were also part of these wars, which were a series of conflicts fought over the course of more than a decade in the kingdoms of Scotland, Ireland and England, of which Charles | was the king. The main causes of these wars had to do with religious as well as governmental issues When the Irish Rebellion started, Charles and Parliament argued over who should control an army to defeat them. Many believed that Charles only wanted to raise an army to dissolve Parliament by force and rule alone again. In addition, Charles's friendship towards the Catholic Church increased Protestant fears Some Irish rebels claimed to be rebelling against the English Protestant Parliament, but not against the king 1642: Charles tried to arrest 5 MPs in Parliament. He was unsuccessful, but Parliament and its supporters saw they had good reason to fear Charles's motives > The First English Civil War started London locked its gates against the king. Charles moved to Nottingham, where he gathered an army to defeat those MPs who opposed him. Most people in England did not wish to be in one side or the other. No more than 10% of the population got involved. Most of the House of Lords and a few of the Commons supported Charles Two sides: - Supporters of Charles > “Royalists” (“Cavaliers”). The Royalists controlled most of the north and west - Supporters of Parliament > “Parliamentarians” (“Roundheads”). The Parliamentarians controlled East Anglia and the southeast, including London Parliament was supported by the navy, by most of the merchants and by the population of London. It controlled the most important national and international sources of wealth. The Royalists had no way of raising money. As a result, in 1645 the Cavaliers were unpaid > soldiers ran away The Royalists lost at Naseby in 1645. The Parliamentarians defeated them and the King did not have the resources to raise another army. In 1616, Charles surrendered and in 1647, he was able to encourage the Scots to rebel against the Parliamentary army. Hence, in 1648 took place the Second Civil War > Scots were defeated Several MPs had commanded the Parliamentarian army. The strongest was an East Anglian, Puritan gentleman farmer named Oliver Cromwell. He established the New Model Army > first regular force from which the British army of today developed. Moreover, Cromwell invited educated people into the army Cromwell and his advisers captured the king in 1645, but did not know what do with him. After Charles encouraged the Scots to fight and lost, some Parliamentarians demanded the king's death for treason> This created some conflict among the Parliamentarians Parliamentarian leaders could: - bring Charles back to the throne and allow him to rule - remove him and create a new political system By this time most people in both Houses of Parliament and the country wanted the king back since they feared the Parliamentarians and their army Some army commanders were determined to get rid of the King. They were Puritans who believed they could build God's kingdom in England. However, % of the MPs did not want to put the king on trial > they were removed from Parliament by the army The remaining MPs judged the king and found him guilty of making “war against his kingdom and the Parliament”. As a result, in 1649 Charles | was executed. He is said to have died bravely. Most people realized they did not want Parliamentary rule REPUBLICAN BRITAIN (1649-1660): Charles l's execution was the first time a monarch in Europe was tried by their own people. Not every Parliamentarian supported the execution Charles | had a son > Prince Charles. However, the Parliamentarians announced that he would not reign > England would become a republic 1649 to 1660 > England was called the Commonwealth (Interregnum). lt was not a success Cromwell created a government far more severe than Charles's had been. After getting rid of the monarchy, they got rid of the House of Lords and the Anglican Church The Scots were shocked by Charles's execution. They invited his son, Charles Il to be King of Scotland and to help them fight against the Parliamentary army. They were defeated, so Charles ran away to France in 1651 3 end of Third English Civil War (1649-1651). In addition, Scotland was brought under Republican rule 1649: Cromwell took an army to Ireland to punish the Irish for the killing of Protestants in 1641 and for the continued Royalist rebellion there. He captured Drogheda and Wexford. Moreover, his soldiers killed about 6000 people > Symbols of English cruelty to the Irish The Irish Rebellion that had started in 1641 would continue until 1652. During this time, a large portion of Ireland was controlled by the Irish Catholic Confederation. The Confederates formed alliances with Royalists. By May 1652, Cromwell had managed to defeat this coalition and occupied the island >He confiscated much of their land This conquest was devastating for the Irish. Many died, either because of the violence of the war or due to the subsequent famine. There was also an outbreak of the plague in Ireland. Many Irish were forced to work as indentured servants> Cromwell is still a hated figure in Ireland today The Republic was initially ruled by a few MPs. This group became known as the Rump. In 1653, Oliver Cromwell, along with around 40 soldiers, marched into Parliament and forced it to dissolve. He tried calling a new Parliament at first, but thought some members were too radical > he chose to rule alone 1653-1658: Cromwell ruled Britain (supported by army). His administration was called the Protectorate and he became “Lord Protector”, with far greater powers than King Charles had ever had. However, his efforts to govern the country through an army were extremely unpopular England had virtually become a dictatorship. Cromwell allowed greater religious freedom for Protestants. He also introduced some laws as an effort to improve people's behaviour: banned the theatre and forbade people from celebrating Christmas and Easter Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and his son, Richard Cromwell, took over. However, he was not a good leader. He resigned 9 months after becoming Protector > The Protectorate collapsed. Some army commanders decided to invite Charles Il back to the throne>The republic was over THE RESTORATION: When Charles Il returned to England as the publicly accepted king, all the laws and acts of Cromwell's government were cancelled. Charles managed his return with skill. In addition, Parliament was weak, but Charles made peace with his father's enemies. However, only those who had been responsible for his father's execution were punished Charles shared his father's belief in divine right. However, his reign was fairly carefree. He tried to avoid an open break with Parliament. Many Parliamentarians were given positions of authority or responsibility in the new monarchy. Still, Parliament remained quite weak Charles wanted to make peace between the different religious groups (Puritans, Catholics, Protestants, Anglicans...). But Parliament was strongly Anglican and refused. In addition, Charles liked the Catholic Church, as consequence, Parliament was afraid he would become a Catholic Parliament passed the Test Act in 1673 > prevented any Catholic from holding public office. The fear of Charles's interest in the CatholigChurch and the monarchy becamjggstoo powerful led to the formation of the first politica] parties in Britalo 2 Thefjrst were the Wings anel ¿hs Datietrown e Didn't want regular army and Church + Believed in religious freedom + —Inheritors of the Royalists + Disliked the Catholic faith + Anglicans + Crown's authority depended on + Anti-Nonconformist* the consent of the Parliament "Noncontormist -> sorneone who dissents trom the establiched Anglican Church THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION: 1685 > James Il becomes king. James was Charles Il's brother, who hadn't had any children. He tried to bring back the Catholic Church and allow it to exist beside the Anglican Church. However, Parliament, especially the Tories, were very angry >James 11 tried to get rid of the Tories in Parliament The Tories waited for Mary, James's daughter, to take the throne. She was Protestant and married to the Protestant ruler of Holland, William of Orange. In 1688, James had a son > outrage it would lead to what would become known as the Glorious Revolution THE ENLIGHTENMENT: The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that dominated the late 17th and early 18th centuries The scientific revolution started in the 1620s, and gave way to an intellectual movement in which Philosophers wondered about society, democracy and the concept of the “social contract”, among others. However, they had different ideas for the social contract: - Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (1651) > written during the Civil War (1642-1651) and supported rule by an absolute sovereign O "Tospeak impartially, both sayings are very true; That Man to Man is a kind of God; and that Man to Manis an arrant Wolfe. - John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (1689) >He believed that people in the state of nature give some of their rights to the government, in order to ensure the enjoyment of their lives, liberty, and property. Moreover, the governments exist by the consent of the people to protect their rights and promote the public good. On contrast, governments that fail to protect the people can be replaced with new governments O “Men being, as has been said, by nature, all free, equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate, and subjected to the political power of another, without his own consent.” Philosophers of the time opposed absolute monarchy and supported religious freedom, tolerance, liberty, and other ideas centered around reason and science. The ideas of the Age of Reason heavily influenced many people around Europe and North America and gave way to political revolutions in the following centuries The glorious Revolution (1688) Parliament decided that James ll had lost his right to the crown, noting that he had broken “the original contract between King and People.”->The social contract theories proposed by philosophers like Locke were fulfilled in 1688, when Parliament started to be seen as the overall power in the state It invited William of Orange (Dutch) to invade Britain. He accepted but the crown was only offered to Mary. As consequence, William said he would leave unless he was crowned too > Parliament accepted and James fled from England since Parliament decided he had lost his right to the crown In 1689, Parliament agreed to have a joint monarchy, where Mary would be queen and William would be king. However, they had to accept a lot of restrictions from Parliament - more than any king or queen before them. For that purpose, they signed the Declaration of Rights, later known as the Bill of Rights (1689): - — acknowledged the right for regular Parliaments - defended free elections and freedom of speech in Parliament - — forbade the monarchy from being Catholic Many historians believe the Bill of Rights was the first step toward a constitutional monarchy and influenced by revolutions elsewhere, there was in Britain a great danger to the established order George |: Some Tories wanted the deposed James Il's son to return to Britain as James Ill, but he was a Catholic. He tried to take the throne by force, but George | of Hanover (son of Sophia) easily defeated the Jacobites. Moreover, George | allowed the Whigs to form his government George | only spoke German and had little interest in his new kingdom. For this reason, government power was increased and the British parliamentary system developed. Furthermore, George | did not preside over cabinet meetings, so one of the king's ministers, Robert Walpole, began doing it instead - Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745) was a Whig politician. He is considered Britain's first Prime Minister. In office from 1721-42, during the reigns of George | £ 11. His opponents believed he had seized the powers that belonged to the throne. Moreover, George Il gave Walpole 10, Downing Street JOINT-STOCKS COMPANIES: companies established in Britain to trade in different areas of the world. People invested in these companies and later received a proportion of their profits. - Walpole had a great financial ability. Britain was becoming wealthy thanks to trade, so people had more money to invest. Hence, they wanted to invest in some of the trading companies doing business in the West Indies, the East Indies, or new territories > investing in joint-stock companies. Moreover, the East India Company was one of the most successful companies during the 17th and 18th centuries THE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE: - — The possibility of high profits made the cost of a share in these companies expensive. In 1720, the South Sea Company offered to pay off the government's national debt if it was given monopoly rights to trading in the South Seas (back then, used to refer to the seas around South America) - It raised money by selling shares, which quickly rose in value. However, people started losing confidence in the Company, so prices fell. Consequently, thousands of people lost everything. However, Robert Walpole was able to bring back public confidence While in other countries of Europe kings and queens had absolute power, Britain was different. Walpole was determined to keep the Crown under the firm control of the Parliament. This was easier now that the king was not particularly interested in his kingdom and he couldn't speak English Walpole wanted to avoid war and to increase taxes so that the government could pay off its debt. He put taxes on luxury goods > tea, coffee and chocolate (brought to Britain from the new colonies in America). Tea had become a national drink by 1700, when about 50,000 kg were imported each year Robert Walpole and George ll: When George | died on June 1727, George Il was crowned>Walpole was kept in favour by getting Parliament to vote new King bigger allowance than George l. Moreover, he developed close political relation with Queen Caroline, wife of George Il Caroline thought Walpole would be the best Prime Minister for her husband's government. In 1737, Queen Caroline died, as a result, Walpole survived as PM but now his enemies were getting stronger > believed he had betrayed the Whig principles of keeping limits on monarch. He kept office by cultivating Royal favours and used Royal patronage for titles, jobs and bribes to control Parliament With his European concerns, George Il was content to let Walpole get on with domestic affairs. Walpole was very pro-peace since he believed it helped a strong economy. However, his critics believed war with France was the necessary way forward Walpole started to become quite unpopular. A new enemy appeared: William Pitt “the Elder”, later known as Lord Chatham. Thus, Walpole gradually lost support and eventually resigned in 1742 >He is the first and longest-serving Prime Minister WILLIAM PITT “THE ELDER” (1708-1778) > Whig statesman - He wanted Britain to be economically strong in the world since he was an ardent supporter of mercantilism and believed that trade was key to success. However, mercantilism was highly competitive and Pitt was convinced that Britain must beat France in the race for an overseas trade empire MERCANTALISM (15th - 18th centuries): Increase of wealth through trade and trade surpluses (exporting more than importing). It is an expression of the old order of the West >Triangular trade in the North Atlantic Towards European conflict: Now Hampstire: 1622 1733: France made an alliance with Spain> France would have a trade advantage over Britain through freer trade possibilities in South America. As a result, Pitt decided to make the navy stronger than that of any other nation and to take over as many as possible of France's trading posts abroad First attempt at colonization > Roanoke Island, 1585. However, the first successful colony was Jamestown, Virginia, 1607. Moreover, in 1620 Pilgrims land in Massachusetts. During the 17th century, more people start going to the “New World” and settling there >11 more colonies are formed > the Thirteen Colonies THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE: NR Massachusetts — 620 4 Id — nodo ¡sia 0% 1638 mece 1635 How Jorsey 1654 Delrmere 1664 Hee Engiane colores, 2 Middla estores E Cnesapenke colas 1% Southern colamies Growing political antagonism between Britain and its American possessions. There had been tension in the relationship between individual provinces and parent country from time to time. Moreover, colonies did not see themselves as ONE American unit/nation. However, it was in the 1750s that a series of events began to change the situation >It all started with the Seven Years' War 1754: conflict with France broke out in North America over border disputes, later known as the Seven Years War >Very influential: Britain would become an empire. Moreover, it is considered by many historians to be the first global war THE SEVEN YEARS WAR (1754-1763): Fought in Asia, North America, South America, Africa where Britain and France were competing to become the supreme power in Europe: focus on territory and access to trade in the Americas and focus over who would become the most powerful in Europe 1756: Britain officially declares war on France. Britain had already been involved in a war against France in the 1740s concerning control of the Austrian Empire. This time Pitt focused on destroying France's trade. GB' ally, Prussia, did most of the fighting in Europe >1757: Pitt sends money to colonists; they start winning Britain's navy stopped French ships reaching or leaving French ports. Moreover, the war went all over the world: Canada > took Quebec and Montreal; GB controlled fish and fur trades. India > French armies defeated; GB controlled most of India > many Britons went to India to make their fortune but had little respect for Indian people and their culture > India-GB relationship turned sour Britain's victories strengthened the country's pride >It was expressed in a national song written in 1742: “Rule Britannia, Britannia rule the waves, Britons never never never shall be slaves” 1760: George Il died and he was succeeded by his grandson George lll who was more English than German and embraced his duty as a patriotic King. In addition, he did not want William Pitt to continue an expensive war. As a result, in 1763, he decided to make peace with France TREATY OF PARIS (1763): Big victory for the British since it became most powerful empire in the world. Furthermore, the British got more territories in the New World > west of the Appalachian mountains, in Florida and in the West Indies The overwhelming victory of Great Britain (and the American colonies) forever altered the balance of power in North America. France was ousted from the continent Royal Proclamation of 1763 largely ignored by colonies and beginning of taxation (war debt and damages) New Empire would prove expensive to maintain > the population of Britain was 8m. They didn't have to tax too much to keep global empire. Why shouldn't Americans pay some of the cost? The colonies had benefited a lot from the end of the war by gaining new territories and getting rid of an enemy