Overview of Political Ideologies: Anarchism, Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism & Styles , Apuntes de Derecho Administrativo

¡Descarga Overview of Political Ideologies: Anarchism, Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism & Styles y más Apuntes en PDF de Derecho Administrativo solo en Docsity! MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES Over the millennia, political philosophers have expounded on a variety of political ideologies, or ways governments and societies can be organized. Today, scholars generally talk about five major political ideologies: 1. Anarchism 2. Absolutism 3. Liberalism 4. Conservatism 5. Socialism These political ideologies are, for the most part, mutually exclusive. So, a liberal government does not usually practice socialism, nor does an absolute ruler follow liberalism. The five major political ideologies have played a key role in history by shaping governments and political movements. Anarchism The belief that the best government is absolutely no government is known as anarchism. This ideology argues that everything about governments is repressive and therefore must be abolished entirely. A related ideology known as nihilism emphasizes that everything—both government and society—must be periodically destroyed in order to start anew. Nihilists often categorically reject traditional concepts of morality in favor of violence and terror. Anarchism and nihilism were once associated with socialism because many anarchists and nihilists supported the socialists’ call for revolution and the complete overhaul of government and society in the early to mid-twentieth century. Example: Although neither violent nor strictly anarchist, members of the American Libertarian Party believe that government should be so small that it hardly ever interferes in citizens’ lives, thereby best preserving individual liberty. Russia Russia has had a long association with anarchism and nihilism. Many prominent members of both movements were Russian, including Mikhail Bakunin, considered the father of anarchism. Russian nihilists engaged in a number of terrorist attacks in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including the assassination of Czar Alexander II in 1881. Absolutism Traditionally, much of Western civilization’s history was dominated by absolutism, the belief that a single ruler should have control over every aspect of the government and of the people’s lives. Absolute rulers had a variety of titles, including chieftain, king, shah, pharaoh, emperor, sultan, and prince. In some cultures, the absolute ruler was seen as a god in human form. Other peoples believed that their ruler had the divine right of kings, meaning that God had chosen the ruler to govern the rest. As a result, many cultures with absolute rulers practiced some form of caesaropapism, the belief that the ruler is head of both the governmental authority and the religious authority. Example: In the Byzantine Empire, the double-headed eagle symbolized caesaropapism. The two heads stood for church and state. This symbol clearly and graphically portrayed the unity of religious and secular power in one person. Advocates of Absolutism A number of political philosophers have advocated absolutism. The Greek philosopher Plato, for example, firmly believed that the best government would be run by a benevolent absolute ruler who would have the people’s best interests at heart. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes, meanwhile, was perhaps the most persuasive proponent of absolutism. In his book Leviathan (1651), he argued that life without governments was “nasty, brutish, and short” and that people must willingly submit to absolute rulers— even tyrannical ones—in order to live longer, more stable lives. Absolutist Beliefs Absolutism emphasizes: 1. A strong sense of order: Everything should be carefully structured, including society. Disorder and chaos are generally considered to be dangerous. 2. A clear-cut law of nature (or law of God): This law must be obeyed. According to this law, some people are inherently better than others. A natural hierarchy (a power structure in which some people have authority over others) exists. Therefore, the superior should rule the inferior. This general view is called elitism, or elite theory. 3. The wisdom of traditional values and institutions: New ideas are considered dangerous to the order of things. Liberalism In the early modern age of the Western world (beginning roughly in the early 1500s and running for about 200 years), a number of changes occurred that led to new ideologies: The European discovery of the Americas, the rise of Protestantism, the beginnings of the free-market economy, and the early stages of the scientific revolution fundamentally altered Europe. People began developing different ways of thinking to take account of these changes. Perhaps the most important of the new ideas is liberalism (also known as classical liberalism). This type of liberalism, which began in England in the 1600s, differs from American liberalism. Classical liberalism developed when such thinkers as John Locke (in his Second Treatise of Government in 1690) rethought the relationship between the individual and society, as well theorized about the rights and responsibilities of the individual. These ideas formed the foundation for many political systems still operating today. • Concreteness: Liberalism is too abstract. It focuses on freedom and equality, not on the concrete way people live every day. • Human fallibility: Liberalism overestimates human beings. Humans are frequently ignorant, prejudiced, and irrational. By ignoring these defects, liberalism becomes unrealistic. • Unique circumstances: There is no universal answer to the problems of society; the circumstances are unique in each country. Classical Conservatism and Democracy Many early conservatives favored authoritarian government. In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars (roughly 1792–1815), for example, most European governments actively worked to stop the spread of liberalism and democracy. Nevertheless, conservatives were not necessarily hostile to democracy. Generally these conservatives argued that some sort of monarchy was necessary, but some were more open to popular government. Burke, in particular, thought that limited democracy was a good form of government for England, as long as it maintained the customs and mores it inherited from its predecessors. Classical Conservatism Today For the most part, classical conservatism has faded. Most people who label themselves conservatives are more like American conservatives than classical ones. But there are still some classical conservatives. Many of them in Europe have ties to old noble families, and some advocate monarchism. Classical conservatives can also be found in other parts of the world. The chart below compares classical liberal views with classical conservative views on several issues. Classical Liberalism versus Classical Conservatism Issue Liberalism Conservatism Tradition Only valuable if it serves a purpose; we should not be afraid to overturn tradition Repository of acquired wisdom; collection of best knowledge from many years of practice Freedom Essential for human flourishing; people are free to do as they please as long as they do not hurt others Excessive freedom is bad; lets people ignore societal responsibilities and overlook social customs Reason Relies on reason; the great success of the scientific revolution can be repeated in human affairs if we use reason Thinks reason is fallible and prone to error; human beings cannot discover the best way to govern through thinking. Instead, we must base our judgments and decisions on experience. Free Market Valuable because it unleashes tremendous economic growth and efficiency, enriching society Dangerous because it breaks down traditional economic roles. The profit motive corrodes customary mores and reduces all relationships to cash transactions. Socialism Socialism arose as a response to the Industrial Revolution, which was the emergence of technologies such as the steam engine and mass production. The Industrial Revolution started in England in the last years of the eighteenth century and had spread to much of Europe and America by the end of the nineteenth century. It caused major upheavals: In a very short time, many people were forced to abandon agricultural ways of life for the modern mechanized world of factories. Early versions of socialism were put forward in Europe in the first part of the nineteenth century (these versions are often dubbed “utopian socialism”), but truly influential socialist theories did not emerge until industrialization expanded in the mid-nineteenth century. Karl Marx is the best-known theorist of socialism. Along with Friedrich Engels, Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) as a call to revolution. Other prominent socialists thinkers included Karl Kautsky, Vladimir Lenin, and Antonio Gramsci. Socialist Beliefs Socialism emphasizes: • Collectivism: Human beings are social by nature, and society should respect this. Individualism is poisonous. • Public ownership: Society, not individuals, should own the property. • Central economic planning: The government plans the economy; there is no free market. • Economic equality: All citizens have roughly the same level of prosperity. Class Warfare According to socialists, liberalism fails to live up to its promises of freedom and equality. Socialists blame the free market for liberalism’s failings. Under a capitalist system, money and means of production are the measures of power. The haves (the bourgeoisie, in Marx’s terms) and the have-nots (whom Marx calls the proletariat) are locked into a fight that Marx called class warfare. Because they control the money and means of production, the bourgeoisie have the power and thus are winning the fight. The rich use the government to further their control and to increase their power over the lower, poorer classes, so people are neither free nor equal. The Evolution of Socialism Socialism evolved in a variety of ways. Communism and democratic socialism are the two most prominent evolutions of socialism. • Communism: An authoritarian and revolutionary approach to achieving socialism. As an ideology, communism emphasizes a classless society in which all members jointly share the means and output of production. The regimes of the Soviet Union and communist China embody this ideology. Communists such as Vladimir Lenin, who became the first premier of the Soviet Union in 1917, argued that people can and must make the transition to socialism quickly rather than waiting for it to evolve. Authoritarian and violent measures are often required because the defenders of capitalism will fight ferociously to stop socialism from coming into being. Communism Today With the fall of communist regimes in Russia and Eastern Europe, communism has been in retreat for most of the 1990s and 2000s. There are, for example, fewer communist movements around the world than during the Cold War. But there are still several major communist regimes, including the governments of North Korea and Cuba. • Democratic socialism: A peaceful and democratic approach to achieving socialism. As an ideology, democratic socialism also emphasizes a classless society in which all members jointly share the means and output of production. But unlike communism, democratic socialism attempts to achieve its goals peacefully via the democratic processes. Democratic socialists reject the need for immediate transition to socialism in favor of a gradualist approach, achieved by working within a democratic government. Economic inequalities should be remedied through a welfare state, a system that provides aid to the poor and help to the unemployed. Democratic Socialism Today Democratic socialism has been quite successful in western Europe and Scandinavia. Many governments there have extensive welfare systems that have remained largely intact even when democratic socialists are voted out of office. Dem-ocratic socialist parties exist in many democracies around the world. Germany’s Social Democratic Party and Britain’s Labor Party are contemporary examples of successful political parties heavily influenced by democratic socialism. POLITICAL STYLES States and political leaders use a variety of political styles to further the interests of the state, including: Fundamentalism In its most basic meaning, fundamentalism is the belief that a religious text is absolutely and literally true and that anything opposing the text must be wrong. All behavior and belief must be guided by this central text, and anything else is sinful. Scholars use the terms fundamentalism and fundamentalist to describe some religions.Nearly all religions have fundamentalist believers or sects. In the United States, for example, Christian fundamentalists constitute a powerful portion of the population. These people (sometimes referred to as the Religious Right, Christian Right, or Christian Conservatives) have had a major impact on American politics, especially in the Republican Party. Fundamentalism in ActionIn recent years, Americans, Europeans, and secular Middle Easterners have been attacked by Islamic fundamentalists. These fundamentalists believe that Islam is the only true religion, that the Koran is absolutely and literally true, and that the Middle East should return to a single Islamic state. Most Muslims are not fundamentalist, but the fundamentalist extremists have had a huge impact on global politics since 2001. American Liberalism American liberalism argues that the government needs to act to ensure equality among its citizens. Historically, for example, liberal groups worked to promote civil rights for African Americans and other minorities. In current politics, many liberals are pushing for gay rights, affirmative action, open immigration, and similar policies. American Liberal Beliefs Generally, liberals push for social, political, and economic equality, as well as expansive civil liberties. Liberals generally want the government to help the poor and make sure that the rich do not have too much power. Although they support capitalism, liberals do not want a completely free market; some government action is needed to ameliorate the worst aspects of the market. Therefore, liberals tend to favor: Graduated income taxes that tax the wealthier more than the poor Welfare programs to aid the poor Major government spending on education Job-retraining programs for unemployed workers Action to promote equal opportunity Expanded civil liberties The chart on the following page lists the different views held by liberals and conservatives on a variety of issues. Of course, individual beliefs transcend general categories: Some conservatives are pro-choice, some liberals are anti–gun control, and some liberals and conservatives might not have strongly held views on any of those issueS LIBERAL VIEWS VERSUS CONSERVATIVE VIEWS Issue Liberal View Conservative View Abortion Legal and open to all women Immoral and should be banned Gun control Heavy restrictions Few restrictions Taxes Higher, progressive Lower, flatter Affirmative action Necessary to make up for centuries of discrimination Unfair because it reversely favors some and excludes others Gay marriage Should be legal Should be ilegal We sometimes think of conservatives as being stronger on national defense than liberals, but this is not always true. During the twentieth century, conservative and liberal leaders worked to strengthen the American military and sometimes engaged in war. For instance, in the 1960s and 1970s, John F. Kennedy increased military spending dramatically, and Lyndon Johnson greatly expanded America’s role in the Vietnam War. How a Liberal Becomes a Conservative There are many adages about how belief changes. For example, one adage states that a conservative is a liberal who has been mugged, while a liberal is a conservative who has lost his or her job. Winston Churchill is said to have remarked, “Any twenty-year-old who isn’t a liberal doesn’t have a heart, and any forty-year-old who isn’t a conservative doesn’t have a brain.” American Conservatism American conservatism argues that the government’s main job is to protect freedom and provide security. Beyond that, the government should stay out of people’s lives and should allow people to do, act, and behave as they see fit. According to conservatives, freedom trumps equality: The government should promote the former, regardless of how expanded freedoms might affect equality. American Conservative Beliefs Conservatives argue that the best way to achieve prosperity is for the government to stay out of the economy. Taxes should be low and regulation minimal so that the market can work most efficiently. Although the government should not ignore the plight of the poor, the best way to help the poor is to give them opportunities to better themselves. Conservatives tend to: • Believe strongly in tradition, particularly religious tradition • Support traditional notions of family • Oppose gay marriage and abortion • Favor lower taxes • Support states’ rights • Favor a strong military and aggressive foreign policies Neoconservatism In recent years, the term neoconservative has emerged to describe one branch of American conservatism. A neoconservative believes in using the government to actively work to achieve conservative goals. Although most neoconservatives still favor a small government, they argue that the government must act assertively in some areas to promote conservative values and policies. Neoconservatives and the Iraq War Even before George W. Bush was elected in 2000, a number of neoconservatives pushed for an invasion of Iraq to oust Saddam Hussein. William Kristol, editor of The Weekly Standard, had argued for such a war as early as 1998. When Bush came into office, he appointed a number of neoconservatives to key government positions, including Paul Wolfowitz as assistant secretary of defense. Many critics of the Bush Administration have complained that the Iraq War was started because of the ideological zeal of the neoconservatives. Some have even referred to the war as “Kristol’s War” because of the role William Kristol had in promoting it. American Libertarianism A smaller but equally important American ideology is libertarianism. Libertarians believe that personal liberty trumps all other considerations. Therefore, according to libertarianism, the government should stay out of people’s lives as much as possible. So libertarians want the government to lower taxes, reduce its size dramatically, and literally leave people alone. Some people advocate controversial positions, such as the legalization of drugs, abolishing income taxes, and ending all welfare programs. Libertarians are few in number, but they have exercised important influences on American politics Example: Libertarian ideals contributed to the founding of the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), which has played a key role in monitoring what it sees as excessive government power, in the early twentieth century. Although the ACLU is not, strictly speaking, a libertarian organization, some of its views are very libertarian in nature. On the other side, the Cato Institute is a conservative think tank with very strong libertarian views. Both groups have shaped policy and society for decades Both liberals and conservatives attack libertarianism. Liberals want the government to play an active role in the economy, whereas conservatives do not want to extend freedom to behavior such as drug use. Libertarians are neither liberal nor conservative, and they essentially differ from anarchists in that libertarians want a very limited government, whereas anarchists want no government. American Socialism American socialists advocate strong federal leadership and centralization of the economy in order to provide the greatest public good by benefiting as many citizens as possible. Most socialists in American