Inglés para fines específicos (ESP), Ejercicios de Inglés Técnico

¡Descarga Inglés para fines específicos (ESP) y más Ejercicios en PDF de Inglés Técnico solo en Docsity! ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES 1 ESP: THEORETICAL INPUT ESP: Research into specialized discourse What kind of English do I know? Let’s talk about...numbers, colours, places, animals, etc. Let’s communicate:  Hello, how are you? – Fine, thank you.  Would you like a cup of coffee? – Yes, sure. Thanks. Let’s express degrees of formality:  Open the window!  Could you open the window, please?  Would you please open the window?  Would you be so kind as to open the window?  Would you mind opening the window for me, please? Social use of language Transactional use of language Chit-chat Keep fluent relationship Entertainment Ice-breaker Socializing Goal-oriented Purposeful Often job-related Often oriented to a specific institution and its activity 1. Specific structural pattern and lexical choice 2. Specific Discourse practice (letters of enquiry, orders, reply to orders, complaints, adjustments) 3. Communicative activities (negitiations, meetings, telephone conversations, presentations, correspondence…) 4. Social Structure (Export-Import context) 5. Institution (Workplace - Business) ESP – origins and development  General English (GE)  Specific English (ESP) How did ESP arise and develop?  it’s an area of interest that has recently been developed (end of 20th century)  it has not been a planned movement but a result from a series of convergent factors  it is a response to specific social demands  scientific, technological, and economic growth after World War II  need to access scientific and technical language  specific communicative needs  need for a «lingua franca» and for a functional language use The language user is aware of his/her communicative needs Intervening factors  Study of language in context (relationship form-function)  Taylor-made courses ensuing needs analysis  Development of new methodologies in ELT (from general texts to specific situation- driven communication)  Development of new learner-driven material  Creativity boom: simulations, case-studies, project work…  Success of NEEDS over NORMS  Insight into the defining characteristics of TEXT TYPES (study of register)  Insight into cultural differences  Language must enable professional activity The ESP teacher The ESP student ESP practitioner Instrumental motivation Course designer Individual expectations Materials writer Cultural-educational expectations Occupational, academic expectations Good control of General English Specific communicative needs May lack subject specialism May lack or have subject specialism Needs to adapt course design to target student Teacher has to satisfy linguistic needs Needs analysis  Why is language needed? - What use will it be exposed to?  How will the language be used? Medium, channel, type of text  What will the content areas be? Medicine, biology, commerce  Who does learner use language with? Nat./non-nat., relat.sh.  Where will the language be used? Target situation  When will the language be used? Time reference  Why are learners taking course? Compulsory, optional, etc.  What resources are available? Materials, aid, teacher’s knowledge. BUSINESS ENGLISH Page 3 To a visitor to your office 1. What’s your name? a. How should I call you? b. Would you give me a name to address you? 2. Leave your coat here (order to invitation) a. May I take your coat? 3. The person you want to speak to is out (offensive) a. I’m sorry but Mr. Matthews is not available at the moment 4. What did you say your name was? (lack of respect) a. Excuse me, would you repeat your name please? 5. Close the door as you go out (order to invitation) a. Would you mind closing the door on your way out please? 6. You’ll have to wait. He’s going to be a few minutes late. a. I’m afraid he’s going to be a few minutes late. You may want to wait here. 7. Do you want some coffee? a. Would you like a cup of coffee? 8. Sit down (and wait) for a bit a. Please, be free to take a seat When you are a visitor 1. I want to talk to Miss Green a. Is Miss Green available? b. I would like to talk to Miss Green 2. Tell Miss Green I’m in a hurry a. Could you please let Miss Green know that I do not have much time to spear? 3. I don’t want to be here more than half an hour a. I’m afraid I won’t be able to stay here more than half an hour 4. Can I smoke in here? a. Do you have a smoking area? 5. You should have told me earlier a. If only I had known earlier 6. Book me a taxi for 16.45 a. Would you please book me a taxi for 16:45? 7. Can I use the phone? a. Would you mind if I use the phone for a minute? 8. Where’s the toilet? a. May I go to the restroom? I’m afraid – something negative Excuse me – used to interrupt Page 4 Easily Confused Words Plane – a flat of a level surface Plain - clear, evident to the mind or senses Current - occurring in or existing at the present time Currant – a small seedless raisin GROSELLA License – permit Licence – permission to act Dependant – a person who depends on another for support, position Dependent – requiring something Weather – the state of the atmosphere Whether – alternative conditions or possibilities Personal – of or relating to the private aspects of a person’s life Personnel – staff Affective – concerned with or arousing the emotions or affection Effective – sth that works well and produces the results that were intended Assured – sth is certain to happen Ensured – to make sure that sth happens Raise – to move it to a higher position Rise – to move upward, to stand up Reminder – it makes you think about another thing Remainder – the amount that remains Coarse (adj) – rough textura Course – the route or path Accept – to agree Except – to omit, to exclude Draft – an early versión Draught – a current of air Principle – a fundamental law, basically Principal – a chief; first in rank; foremost Formerly – in time past Formally – in formal manner Advice – an opinion or recommendation Advise – to give counsel Latter – being the second mentioned of two Later – occurring after the usual time Proof – evidence or facts Prove – to establish the truth Higher – having a considerable height Hire – to employ Break – to smash or divide into parts violently Brake – a device for slowing or stopping a car Correspondents – a person who communicates by letters Correspondence – a letter or letters that pass between correspondents Checked – to examine; to prove to be right Chequed – having a pattern of checks Relay – a series of persons taking turns Rely – to put trust in Bare – without covering Bear – to support; to give birth to Canvas – a closely woven, heavy cloth of cotton; a painting on canvas Canvass – to ask for votes, views; to examine carefully Council (n) – a meeting for consultation Counsel (v/n) – advice given to another Assured – to declare positively Insured – a person whose life or property is covered by an insurance policy Passed – having received a passing grade Past – gone by in time Page 5 Practice 1 1. Can we count on it? – Is it certain? 2. Can you fill me in? - Give me the background, please 3. Can we get out of it? – Is it necessary to do it? 4. Can we find some sort of stopgap? – Is there a temporary solution? 5. Can we play it by ear? – Do we need to be prepared? 6. Can we kick up a bit of a fuss? – Do you think arguing will help? 7. Can you tone it down a bit? – Don’t be so direct 8. Can you keep an eye on things for us? – Will you take care of our interest? 9. Can we get down to brass tacks? – Let’s talk about the real problem 10. Can we keep this under our hats for a while? – Don’t say anything yet Practice 2 o Nitty gritty – important business o It left something to be desired – it was very unsatisfactory o Put a different complexion on things – things seem different now o Dragging their feet – going deliberately slow o Take that as a read – agree without discussion o Taken for a ride – cheated “tomar el pelo” o Being up to something – doing something I don’t know about o Bending over backwards – helping us as much as possible o Put in a word – try to help you, recommend you o String us along – delay things Page 6 Practice 3 1. He’s got on his high horse – He was rather arrogant 2. He called a spade a spade – He said exactly what he thought a. al pan, pan y al vino, vino 3. He was given the red-carpet treatment – he was very well cared for 4. He was completely out of his depth – He didn’t understand at all 5. He was stopped in his tracks – He met an unexpected problem 6. He put his head on the block – He took the responsibility 7. He put his foot down – He insisted 8. He held his own all right – He wasn’t overwhelmed by other people 9. He was the blue-eyed boy – He was so popular he couldn’t make a mistake a. ojito derecho 10. He was up the creek without a paddle – He was in serious difficulties 11. He was up to his eyes – He was very busy 12. He couldn’t cope – He wasn’t able to do what he was supposed to Practice 4 1. We wanted to keep our options open – We didn’t want to decide too early 2. We were on a wild goose chase – We were wasting our time 3. We sat on it for a while – We waited 4. We hadn’t a leg to stand on – We had no hope of explaining 5. We were in rather a tight corner – We were in difficulties 6. We were all on our mettle – We tried to show ourselves at our best 7. We pulled out all the stops – We tried as hard as possible 8. We were feeling the pinch – We were short of money 9. We didn’t play our cards too well – We made some mistakes negotiating 10. We painted the town red – We had rather a wild party/evening Practice 5 1. There have been a few teething troubles – Early problems 2. There’s been a slight hitch – A problem 3. There was a bit of a free-for-all – Confusing argument 4. There was a lot of beating about the bush – There’s more in the pipeline 5. There’s more in it than meets the eye – everything is not as it seems 6. There was a lot of hot air around – silly, meaningless arguing 7. There’s a catch – an unnoticed problem Page 7 Practice 6  I want to call London / Can I have a line, please. Judgement, discretion, hard-headedness Lacks inspiration or ability to motivate others Ability to promote team spirit and to respond to people and situation Indecisiveness at moments of crisis Capacity for follow-though. Perfectionism A tendency to worry about small things. A reluctance to let go. Page 12 – Flat pack to the future: How Ikea shaped our lives  Touchstones  Museum  Small, backwoods business  Entrepreneur  Discounted rate  Showroom  Manufacturing Page 13 – Road ragers in the sky  Long-suffering costumers  Steep climb  Air rage incidents  Stemmed  On the tarmac  At fault  Cramming  Passenger frustration  Cost-cutting exercise – reduce cost  Capacity burns  Soaring number  In-flight behaviour  Stiffer – rigid Page 14 – Cross-cultural business communication  The goal of a business negotiation is a signed contract between parties  The goal of the negotiation is creating a relationship  Win-win negotiators see deal making as a collaborative, problem-solving process.  Win-lose negotiators see deal making as confrontational.  A negotiator with a formal style insists on addressing counterparts by their titles, avoids personal anecdotes, and refrains from questions touching personal topics.  A negotiator with an informal style tries to start the discussion on a first-name basis, quickly tries to develop a personal relationship with the other team.  Direct communication  Indirect communication  Being sensitive to time: punctuality, quickness, lateness, slow negotiation. o Time is money / Invest time  Emotionalism  Detailed contracts may be interpreted as a lack of confidence. Page 17 Useful expressions for A Explaining the situation Useful expressions for B Showing understanding  I’m sorry but I’m not satisfied with  Look  Let me explain this to you Explaining the problem  The problem is  There seems to be a problem with Insisting  I would really like to know  I don’t think  I insist that  Don’t take me wrong, but  Look, I must insist that  I would really like you to reconsider USEFUL FILLERS Let’s put it bluntly Well… Look… I can see… but… I’m afraid…  Oh dear! Sorry to hear that  Mmm! I see what you mean  I’m sorry about the problem Getting the facts  Could you give me some more details?  What’s the problem exactly?  What happened exactly? Making excuses/denying responsibility  It’s not our policy to  It’s not our fault that  I’m afraid that’s not quite right  I’m afraid we have different views on that  I’m afraid I can’t agree with you  I’m very sorry, but Promising action/Refusing action  I’ll look into it right now  I’ll check if I can do something about it  I’m terribly sorry, but there’s nothing I can do about it  I’m sorry but things are as they stand Page 18 – Taking part in meetings Interrupting  Could I just say something?  Excuse me, but could I just say Asking for clarification  How do you mean, …?  What exactly are you saying?  What exactly do you mean?  Are you saying we need to …?  Sorry, I don’t follow you  Can you explain in more detail? Clarifying  What I mean is  What I’m saying is  No, I was thinking of  To be more specific  To clarify Dealing with interruptions  Hold on. Can I finish the point?  Let X finish, please  I’d like to finish If I may  Just a moment Making proposals  I suggest  I propose that  How about…  We could… Rejecting proposals  Sorry, I don’t think it’s/that’s a good idea  I’m not sure I agree with you there  It/That just won’t work  Well, I’m not happy about it/that Page 19 – Starting presentations Introducing yourself  On behalf of myself and Focus Advertising, I’d like to welcome you. My name’s Sven Larsen.  Hi everyone, I’m Dominique Lagrange. Good to see you all. Introducing the topic  I’m going to tell you about the ideas we’ve come up with for the ad campaign.  This morning, I’d like to outline the campaign concept we developed for you. Giving a plan of your talk  I’ve divided my presentation into three parts. Firstly, I’ll give you the background to the campaign. Secondly, I’ll discuss the media we plan to use. Finally, I’ll take you through the storyboard for the TV commercial.  My talk is in three parts. I’ll start with the background to the campaign, move on to the media we plan to use, and finish with the storyboard (or the commercial). Inviting questions  If there’s anything you’re not clear about, go ahead and ask any questions you want.  If you have any questions, please don’t hesitate to interrupt me. Page 20 Decline Gain Drop Increase Rocket Plummet Double Fall Halve Level off Triple Recover Decrease Fluctuate Improve Peak Rise Jump Page 21 – Cultural differences Situation 1: Everything froze up because Mr. Fouad did not like that Mr. Byrd does not visit his family very often and, moreover, that the father of the US diplomat is staying in a nursing home instead of the family home. Gift-giving customs:  Japan: gift-giving is an important part of doing business, as it symbolizes the depth and strength of a business relationship. It is expected to be responded by doing the same in return.  Germany, Belgium, the UK: gifts are rarely exchanged. In the latter two, if you are invited to someone’s home, you might bring flowers.  China: when visiting someone, you should take the gift. When you give it to the host upon leaving, the host would say “No” and decline it before accepting it, try to persuade the visitor not to bring anything next time. Usually, the host will give something in return.  English-speaking countries: you will give your wrapped gift to the host just after arriving. TABOOS:  Giving food to Muslims during the month of Ramadan.  Giving dolls as a gift to Arabs because they will not cherish any other idols except Allah.  Repeating gifts to the same Japanese (except whiskey)  Giving gifts of the same value to Japanese of different “status” Significance of gestures:  Symbol of 👌 👌: in US, it means OK; in France, it means zero; in Japan, it means money; and in Brazil is a symbol of vulgarity.  The V for victory may be an insulting sign in most Europe.  The nodding of heads up and down: it indicates agreement or “Yes”; in China and Japan means that the person hears what is said. In Bulgaria, it means “No” – A side-to- side shake means “Yes”.  Touching a child’s head: In China is done to show affection, but in Arab countries and Thailand is offensive as the head is considered the most sacred part of the body. Page 29 – Replying letters of complaint Introduction Thank the client for the input Acknowledge the problem Be concerned for the client 1st paragraph Accepting the complain – be neutral, sound as a narrator Offer apologies Tell the client what you are going to do in respect to the complain 2nd paragraph Resume the experience – “bad memories” Remake the relationship – bribe your client Conclusion Maximization of the apology Page 30 – Making complaints Introduction State about what are you complaining about: you should be able to be clear about what is wrong. Body Explain thoroughly the mistakes that have been made. Conclusion State that you need the answer as soon as possible. Page 31 – Reports Introduction Answering the needs of X: As requested in your memo, here is my report Subheading 1 Reasons for / Positive points about Subheading 2 Reasons against / Negative points about Conclusion Recommendations PLACING AN ORDER - Containers Shipping containers Food containers Cases Boxes Crates Stencilled boxes Corrugated cardboard Padded envelope Polystyrene foam and balls Juice carton Carton of eggs Carton of ice cream Carton of beer Carton of staples State of your order 1. Factory 2. First carrier 3. Alongside ship 4. On board 5. On arrival 6. Alongside ship 7. Destination place 8. Buyer warehouse Page 32 – Placing orders 1. Place your order. 2. State how the goods are going to be delivered – the transport used and how they are going to be packed. 3. The stipulated time is going to take to be delivered to the warehouse. 4. The method of payment. 5. Say what can be done if there is something wrong with the order. Page 33 – Orders Letter 4: We thank you for your recent order and have pleasure in accepting the 2% additional discount. With regards to the delivery by the 16th March, we will try our best to meet this date, but due to demand, it is possible the cases could be delayed by up to one week. We hope/trust this will be suitable/fine to you. Yours faithfully, Letter 5: We thank you for your above-mentioned order but regret to inform/ [Grab your reader’s attention with a great quote from the document or use this space to emphasise a key point. To place this text box anywhere on the page, just drag it.] say that owing to delivery restrictions, we no longer stock “Meredith” product. We do, however, have a similar line of lightweight suitcases, manufactured by “Executive”, which are considerably more durable and only slightly more expensive. The price to you would be £14.75 excluding V.A.T., as opposed to £13.55, and is guaranteed within ten days. Perhaps you could call this office if you would like our area representative to demonstrate the range/products. Page 34 – Payment o Extend the credit limit account = overlooked for payment o Clear the balance – ajustar las cuentas o Settle the account – saldar deuda o Have an outstanding account – deuda pendiente o Your account is overdue – pago pendiente o Threatening with legal action o Direct remittance Letter 6 - Reminder It … from our records, that your above … dated the 15th December has been overlooked for payment. As … are the 20th of the month following delivery, we would appreciate settlement at your early convenience. Letter 7 – Second Reminder Further to our letter of 12th February, we notice that the above account remains outstanding. Should you have settled the account within the last few days, kindly disregard this reminder, otherwise we must ask for an immediate remittance. Letter 8 – Final Reminder Further to our two previous reminders, we note the above account remains unpaid and unless we receive settlement by … of post, we shall have no option but to pass the matter to our legal department. Letter 9 – An Overdue Account Thank you for your letter of 9th April. We quite understand that business in the fur trade is rather depressed at the moment, and that you are in particular difficulties due to your recent fire. To assist with the problem of your outstanding/overdue account, we can list you the following concessions: 1. We will accept a part payment of 50% for invoices up to 1st September 2. Your credit limit for the balance, and for the goods … after 1 st September, will be extended for further three months. We kindly ask you to note/see that these terms are exceptional, and that we shall have to ask you for settlement in full three months’ time. You will appreciate we cannot supply you with further orders until these balances have been settled. Letter 10 – Complaints Intestine (small/large) – intestine Kidneys – riñones Stomach – estómago Oesophagus – esófago Lung – pulmón Anus – ano Larynx - laringe Trachea - tráquea Left and right bronchus - bronquio Bronchioles – bronquilos Bladder – vejiga Ureter – ureter Gall bladder - vesícula biliar Heart - corazón Specialties Cardiologist – doctor who specializes in the heart and its diseases Geriatrician – physician who specializes in the medical care of old people Anaesthetist – doctor who specializes in giving anaesthetics Dermatologist – doctor who specializes in the skin and its diseases Paediatrician – physician who specializes in paediatrics Pathologist – medical doctor who examines bodies and body tissues in search of diseases Oncology – doctor who specializes in the study of tumours, including cancers Traumatologist – surgeon who treats both simple and complex fractures Psychiatrist – doctor that specializes in the study, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders Neurosurgeon – physician who specializes in the diagnosis and surgical treatment of the brain or other nerve tissues Getting a medical education  GP – general practitioner  NHS – National Health Service (vs. private healthcare)  Medical practitioners (qualified medical staff)  Private consulting rooms  PRHO (pre-registration house officer) = newly graduated doctor in first year of postgraduate training: Foundation year 1 doctor  SHO (senior house officer) = second year of postgraduate training: Foundation year 2 doctor  SpR (specialist register) – doctor who has completed the Foundation Programme; now starts training in one of the specialties  Consultant – fully qualified specialist Doctors Nurses Perform/carry out An examination An operation A procedure An experiment A test A biopsy In charge of patient care Check temperatures Pulse rates Blood pressure Change dressings Remove sutures Give injections Prescribe Drugs Order Laboratory tests  Digestion begins in the mouth (food is chewed, broken down into smaller pieces)  Food passes through/is pushed down the oesophagus  Stomach churns up food (food further broken down)  Pancreas releases pancreatic juice into the small intestine (breaks down food into digestible nutrients)  Gallbladder produces bile which provides optimal conditions for the small intestine  Nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream (through the villi – tiny intestinal hairs)  Indigestible food and water remain leave the body through the anus Page 43 – Don’t make your parents laugh at your pronunciation Bowels: intestine Faecal blood: blood found in the faeces Tourniquet: device that stops you from bleeding Gynaecology: deals with the health and diseases of women Fibrillation: uncontrolled twitching Dyspnoea: difficulty in breathing Mitral valve: valve that prevents the blood from flowing back into the heart Anaesthesia: loss of sensation in the whole body or in certain areas Syncope: faint temporary / there is not enough blood Malignant: deathly Sputum: spit Purulent: it contains pus Phlegm: mucus Haemoptysis: cough blood Oedema: swelling Gauze: fabric for wounds Analgesics: pain killers Femur: largest bone Haematemesis: vomit blood Haematuria: blood in the urine Insomnia: not being able to sleep Myocardial: heart attack Seizure: convulsion Womb: uterus Bronchodilator: dilates bronchial tubes to aid breathing Rheumatic: arthritis Diuretics: used to increase the volume of urine Bronchi: carry air to the lungs Tinnitus: ring that you hear all the time Climacteric: menopause Prolonged: to continue longer Pulmonary: of or affecting the lungs Aorta: main artery that carries blood to the rest Tricuspid valve Orthopnoea: shortness of breath Scalding: pain that feels like a burn Exertion: vigorous action Occult Nocturia Page 45 – How to beat insomnia  Poor sleep is taking its toll on the nation’s health.  Insomniacs report low energy levels and mood swings.  Poor sleep can increase the risk of developing diabetes, depression, high blood pressure and strokes.  In Britain, poor sleep is treated with sleeping pills, that might have undesirable side- effects and might not even solve long-term sleep problem.  Sleep experts point out that is good to have great sleep hygiene, a pre-bed routine o A dark room without “blue lights”. o Comfortable temperature. o Avoid anything that stimulates the system: caffeine, alcohol, a heavy meal or exercise. o Save sleep for bedtime. Do not disrupt your body clock trying to solve your sleep debt. o It gets harder to sleep as you get older – the sleep architecture of older people is that they spend less time in deeper, non-REM sleep and their circadian rhythm moves forward.  Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)  Sleep is a process of letting go.  Got to sleep when you feel sleepy.  Set your mind at rest.  Learn to value relaxation. Page 47 – You can die of ‘broken heart syndrome’  Potentially fatal heart condition that results from intense emotions.  The risk of dying from a cardiac arrest is higher the day after losing a spouse.  Consultant cardiologist  Types of shock such as overwhelming fear or extreme pain may lead to catastrophic heart failure.  Takotsubo cardiomyopathy or stress cardiomyopathy – The trigger for the syndrome is the sudden massive release of adrenaline.  Broken heart syndrome is a condition which adrenaline causes weakness instead.  Acute stress  Susceptible – or resilient – to the hormone rush.  The patient may be misdiagnosed because the condition is little known and many of the typical symptoms indicate a standard heat attack.  Coronary angiograms and chest pain  Men drop down dead if they have a big stress, whereas women recover.  Stress overload and high adrenaline levels  Forcibly restrained  Deaths in custody Page 49 – Homespun cures for coughs and colds  Constant cacophony of coughs and sneezes – a harsh discordant mixture of sounds  Cough medicines are little more than sugary placebos  Boozes (a no-no) - Drinking weaken your immune system  Honey has antibacterial properties and it boost your immune system. It soothes the throat as well.  Your drink shouldn’t be all that hot, it should be warm – These rehydrate the tissue and provide soothing warmth to relax the musculature.  Milky drinks are soothing but can boost mucus production, which can aggravate your throat and bring on a tickly cough.  Pineapple or mango juice soften the larynx.  Vitamin C cold-prevention power are as anecdotal as the cranberry’s mythical ability to prevent cystitis. – These are old wives’ tales.  “Feed a cold, starve a fever”  We will turn to family and folk remedies in times of medical need  Sometimes a touch of the placebo effect is needed to make us feel better – vs. nocebo effect  Comfort foods can work psychosomatic wonders.  A predilection for childish fare in times of phlegm and mucus  The severity of common cold symptom  Undesirable side effects  Replenish salts and rehydrate Page 50 – Runny nose, fat wallet … Welcome to Flu Camp  Cold season: period in which the probabilities of having a cold are higher.  Snuffle: to draw the breath or mucus noisily through the nose.  Huddled: to gather or crowd together. Flu Camp  You can’t donate your body if you succumbed to some communicable illness  Disfiguring illnesses may also rule you out of donating  You have to be in perfect health but dead Page 59 – Why the modern world is bad for your brain  Pseudo facts, jibber-jabber  21st century many for cramming everything we do into every single spare moment of downtime  There’s a fly in the ointment  Multitasking – there’s a cognitive cost in switching from one task to another very rapidly  Keeping a lot of balls in the air  The stress hormone cortisol  The fight-or-flight hormone adrenaline – can cause mental fog or scrambled thinking  Multitasking creates a dopamine-addiction feedback loop  Attention can be easily hijacked by something new  Endogenous opioids  To the detriment of our staying on task  This expectation is so ingrained  Cognitive performance  They’re deluding themselves  We’ve depleted the nutrients in our brain  Staying on task  Snail mail  Texting’s hypermediacy – you receive a text, and that activates your novelty centres Page 64 – What does stress do to your body?  Fight or flight system  Effects of stress: your heart pounds, your stomach lurches, your hands turn clammy  Adrenaline rush: o the hypothalamus issues a series of command designed to prepare us for fight or flight o the adrenal glands o the feeling of a knot or fluttering in our stomach o immune cells, which travel from the spleen and bone marrow where they are stored, into the bloodstream o a predictor of trauma or violence o while adrenaline floods the body within seconds, cortisol seeps into the bloodstream more gradually  Is stress always bad? o Stress inoculation o The pursuit of a stress-free life is not healthy  Can burn out make you ill? o The stress response is designed to be self-limiting o Burn out o Higher levels of inflammation o Inflammatory memory of stress  It’s personal  Early risers are less likely to develop mental health problems o FBKP5 THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM The faeces Stools – There was blood in the stools Motions – My motions have been very loose lately  To pass stools – take a shit  To pass water – pee Piles – haemorrhoids Bowel movement – defecation Bowel habit – the patter of defecation  Have you noticed any change of bowel habit?  How often do you open your bowels?  Are you going to the toilet more often than normal? Change in bowel habit  Constipation – hard, infrequent stools  Diarrhoea – frequent soft or liquid stools Consistency of the stools: hard, formed, semi-formed, soft (loose), liquid/watery.  Normal stools: brown, semi-solid (formed)  Melaena stools (tarry) – black stools as a result of intestinal bleeding  FOB: faecal occult blood  Clay-coloured, pale stool – high fat content  Bulky stools: large in volume  Foul or offensive stools: with bad smells 1.1 GYNAECOLOGY Menstruation  Period = menstrual period  Menarche: onset of menstruation  Menstrual cycle: length and frequency of periods  Prolonged period: lasts more than 5 days  Heavy periods: excessive bloods loss  Menorrhagia: heavy period often with passage of clots  The menopause = climacteric = the change  Menopause symptoms: hot flushes – night sweats  Period pain / Period cramps  Discharge THE HEART AND CIRCULATION Shortness of breath – asthma, bronchitis Dyspnoea – shortness of breath or breathlessness. It might be caused by  Exertion – physical activity Are your periods regular? How often do you get them? When was your last period? How long do they usually last? Would you say they are light or heavy? Do you get clots? Do you get period pains? Is there any discharge between the periods? What colour is it?  At rest Orthopnoea – breathlessness when lying flat. The patient tends to sleep raised up on two or more pillows SOBOE – shortness of breath on exercise/on exertion/on effort Heart rhythm Normal resting heart rate: 65-75 beats per minute The hearth rhythm may be regular or irregular.  Arrhythmia – irregular rhythm  Premature beats – early beats which interrupt the regular rhythm  Fibrillation – the rhythm may be completely irregular  Palpitations – the description of the symptom made by patients that are aware of irregularity. I’ve been getting palpitations  Heart attack – the heart begins to beat very irregularly or stops completely  Defibrillator – machine that starts the heart beating normally again after a heart attack by giving it an electric shock  Atrial fibrillation – a local and uncontrollable twitching of muscle fibres that results in rapid and irregular heart rate Heart failure  Heart failure – it occurs when the heart is unable to maintain sufficient cardiac output for the body’s needs  Cardiac output: the amount of blood pumped by the heart each minute  Left heart failure – the main symptom is breathlessness  Right heart failure – the symptoms include peripheral oedema (swelling) beginning in the feet and ankles  Pitting oedema – when a finger is pushed into the swelling, and it causes a small depression or pit Blood vessels – the narrow tubes through which your blood flows  Vein – thin tubes with oxygen poor blood (blood that comes from your body to your heart)  Arteries –tubes that carry blood rich in oxygen (blood that goes from your heart to the rest of your body)  Mitral valve replacement THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Sensory loss The central nervous system controls the sensory and motor functions of the body. Diseases of this system therefore lead to loss some of these functions. Function Loss Other symptoms Hearing Deafness Tinnitus: buzzing or ringing in the ear Sight Blindness Diplopia: double vision Loss of visual acuity: loss of clarity of vision, blurring Sensation Anaesthesia: Paraesthesia: tingling or pins and needles Symptoms Definitions Frequency Frequent passing of urine Dysuria Burning or scalding pain in the urethra when passing urine Nocturia Urination at night Urgency Urgent need to pass urine Hesitancy Difficulty starting to pass urine Urinary incontinence Involuntary passing of urine Do you ever lose control if your bladder? Any leaking or dribbling? Haematuria Macroscopic blood in the urine Have you ever passed blood in the urine? 1.2 BASIC INVESTIGATIONS Taking blood  Venipucture: medical process in which a needle is inserted into a vein to withdraw blood into a specimen tube.  Phlebotomist: a technician who takes blood  Haematology laboratory  Tourniquet: tight band used to facilitate vein prominence  Bruise: specific mark  Bruising: used to describe a number of bruises or a larger area Blood pressure  Stethoscope – used to hear the blood rushing back through the artery  Systolic blood pressure (SBP) – the first thumping sound  Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) – when the thumping sound is no longer heard TAKING A HISTORY Personal details Patients’ personal details have been entered in their records by a nurse or administrative staff before a doctor sees them. On later consultations a doctor may wish to check details such as address, date of birth, occupation, or marital status:  Do you work? / What do you do for a living o No, I’m unemployed / I’m out of work o No, I’m retired / I’m a pensioner o Yes, I work for a bank / I work in a factory  Do you have a partner? o No, I’m single/separated/divorced. o No, I’m a widow/widower/divorced. o Yes, I’m married o I live with my partner/spouse/husband/wife. o My spouse passed away last year. Drug history Details of drugs and medications  Are you taking any medication at the moment? Spouse – can be a wife or a husband Widow – woman whose husband is dead Widower – man whose wife is dead Someone has passed away = dead  Which tablet do you take?  Do you use any other over-the-counter remedies or herbal or homeopathic medicines? Frequency of administration – Dose  How many times a day? Compliance  Do you always remember to take it? Side effects and allergies  Do you get any side effects?  Do you know if you are allergic to any drug? If the answer is Yes: what symptoms do you get after taking it? Family history  Do you have any brothers and sisters?  Do you have any children?  Are all your close relatives alive?  Are your parents alive and well?  Is anyone taking regular medication?  How old was he/she when he/she died?  Do you know the cause of death?  What did he/she die of?  Does anyone if your family have a serious illness? Social and personal history  What kind of house do you live in?  Do you live alone?  Who shares your home with you?  How old are your children?  Are any of them at nursery or school?  What’s your occupation?  Do you have any problems at work?  Do you have any financial problems?  Do you have any hobbies or interest?  What about exercise?  How many a day?  Have you tried giving up?  What about alcohol?  Wine, beer or spirits?  Can you give up alcohol when you want?  How much do you drink in a week?  What’s the most you would drink in a week?  Are you aware of any difference in your alcohol consumption over the past 5 years? Pharmacies sell a wide variety of over-the-counter remedies as well as dispensing prescriptions from physicians. The dose is the quantity of the medication to be taken at any one time. A drug allergy is hypersensitivity to a particular drug. An herbal remedy is a medication prepared from plants, especially a traditional remedy. Your brothers and your sisters are your siblings. Recreation is what your do for physical or mental stimulus outside work. Housing can take many forms: apartment, single rooms, houses, hostels. The patient’s compliance to drug treatment, his willingness or ability to take the right dose at the right time and frequency, is essential. Reviewing the systems Ask about the systems to determine the patient’s general state of health and to check for any additional problems. Patients should be encouraged to describe symptoms spontaneously. Open-ended questions  What’s your appetite like?  How’s your vision? Closed questions  Have you eaten today?  Is your vision ever blurry? Asking about the central nervous system  Do you suffer from headaches?  Have you ever had a blackout?  What about fits?  Have you had any dizziness?  Do you get ringing in the ears?  Have you ever experienced any numbness or tingling in your hands or feet?  Do you have any problems sleeping? Patient ideas, concerns, and expectation – ICE Ideas  What do you know about this problem/condition/illness?  Do you have any ideas about this?  How do you think you got this problem?  What do you mean by? Concerns  What are your worries about this?  Do you have any concerns?  How might this affect the rest of your family? Expectations  What do you think will happen?  What do you expect from me?  What were you hoping we could do for you? Phrasal verbs in history-taking Phr. Verb Example Meaning a. Could you tell me what we’re going to do for you? b. Is everything clear to you? Page 83 A consultant medical oncologist record 1. I’d like to record this consultation 2. I’m afraid that the scans results aren’t very good. – Rising CA 19.9 3. Surgery isn’t an option at this stage. 4. There is still we can do to help you – palliative treatment. 5. This won’t cure you, but it will make you more comfortable 6. One can never be certain about this 7. It’s a matter of months 8. I’m sorry to have to tell you this. 9. I’d like to book you into Ward 2 to start your chemo. – start treatment 10. Could you tell me what treatment we’re going to give you? 1.5 TYPES OF MEDICATION Medication Description Capsules They have a film that dissolves with the acids of the stomach Injection The medicine is put in your body using a needle Ointment They have a thicker texture which makes them adhere to the affected area longer Paste Stiffer preparations which contain more powdered solids Pessary Medicine that is introduced through the vagina Powder Tiny particles of a solid substance Solution Liquid in which a solid substance has been dissolved Spray Liquid kept under pressure in a container, which you can force out in small drops Suppository Medicine that is introduced through the anus Syrup Medicine in the form of a thick, sweet liquid Tablets Small solid round mass of medicine which you swallow Inhaler Device that helps you to breathe more easily Lotion Liquid and used in areas such as the scalp Creams Usually used in cosmetics and used on the face as they are less visible SYMPTOMS AND PAIN Asking about symptoms Feature Typical question Main Site Where does it hurt? Show me where it hurts Radiation Does it go anywhere else? Character Can you describe the pain? Precipitating factors Does anything bring them on? Times of onset When do they start? Time of resolution When do they stop? Frequency How often do you get them? Aggravating factors Does anything make them worse? Is there anything else that affects them? Relieving factors Does anything make them better? Associated factors Do you feel anything else wrong when it’s there? Have you any other problems related to the pain? Duration How long do they last? Severity How bad is it? DESCRIPTION OF PAIN Description Explanation Aching / an ache A general pain, often in muscles and joints Boring Like a drill Burning With heat Colicky An intermittent pain which varies in intensity, comes, and goes in waves Crampy/Cramp An involuntary spasmodic muscle contraction Crushing A feeling of pressures Dull A background pain, opposite of sharp Gnawing Biting Gripping A feeling of tightness Scalding Like a boiling water Sharp Acute Stabbing Like a knife Stinging Sharp, burning, like an insect sting Throbbing With a pulse or beat 1.6 LAY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Medical conditions Lay term Acute cerebrovascular event Stroke Arrhythmia Palpitations Dyspnoea Breathlessness Fractured neck of femur Broken hip Haematemesis Vomiting blood Haematuria Blood in the urine Insomnia Trouble with sleeping Intermittent claudication Pains in the back of the legs when walking Myocardial infarction Heart attack Nocturia Needing to pass urine at night Medical conditions Lay term Analgesics Pain killers Anti-depressants Tablets to improve your mood Anti-inflammatory Medicine to reduce swelling Broncho-dilator A substance which causes the airways to open up DMARDs (disease modifying anti- rheumatic drugs) Pills that help stop arthritis progressing Diuretics Water tablets Hypertension medication Pills for blood pressure Hypnotics Sleeping tablets Oral contraceptives The pill Medical term Simple definition Arteries Tubes which carry blood around the body Benign Not due to cancer or infection Bronchi Airways that connect your windpipe to your lungs Cholesterol Fat that clogs the arteries Intervertebral disks Shock absorbers which separate the bones in you back Oesophagus The tube that connects the back of the throat to the stomach Pancreas A gland that helps digestion and makes insulin to control blood sugar Thyroid A gland that produces some of the hormones required in daily life Urethra The tube that carries urine from the bladder Page 92  You don’t want anything blocking the airflow to the radiators  They had a wheel nut jam, it wouldn’t turn. (stuck)  He didn’t hit the barriers and bend the suspension or snap it completely.  It didn’t crack the tub – the chassis. o A nut worked loose on a radiator pipe, which resulted in coolant liquid leaking out. o He switched off before the system had run out of coolant. o The engine cut out on one of the corners. o The openings in the side pods always clog out with dirt. o The tyres weren’t close to wearing out o The radiation problem didn’t cause the engine to blow out. Which word is only used to warn of a risk of injury to people? Danger Which word is only used to warn of a risk of damage to equipment? Important Page 93 Solar towers Compression Reduction in volume due to external forces Bending To force something into a particular position – from straight to curve Torsion To twist something Expansion Due to high temperature, the mass of the object grows Pressure The force that you produce when you press hard on something Tension To stretch the mass of the object (pull in different directions) Shear To break as the result of pressure Friction The rubbing of one surface against another Contraction Due to low temperature, the mass of the object shrinks Centrifugal force The force that makes objects move outwards when they are spinning around something or travelling in a curve. Page 94  So that downward force means the structure is in compression, especially near the bottom.  A horizontal load, exerted by air pressure against one side of the structure.  Because the structure is fixed at ground level, and free at the top, that generates bending forces.  When elements bend, you have opposing forces: compression at one side, tension at the other.  The wind effectively tries to slide the structure along the ground, and the foundations below the ground resist that. The result of that is shear force.  The foundations need to rely on the friction with the ground to resist the pull-out force.  The action of the wind can also generation torsion. You get a twisting force.  When concrete absorbs heat from the sun, you get expansion; as soon as the sun goes in, there’s contraction. Page 95 Describing the causes of faults Page 96 Describing positions of assembled components Page 97 Critical reviews Leaking out – unnoticeable Flowing out - abundant Page 98  A bad thing about this research is – One problem with the research is  Another problem is – In addition  Also – Furthermore  The researchers looked at how the… changed – Changes in  The result of the research was – the research found  The results might not be the same for – The results cannot be applied  They gave blood – Blood samples were taken Page 99 1. Brittleness – how easily something can be broken 2. Capacitance – how well something holds an electrical charge 3. Concentration – How much of the substance is found in another 4. Conductivity – how well something allows the heat or electricity to go through it 5. Density – how much mass a given volume of a substance has 6. Flammability – how easily something burns 7. Luminance – how much light passes through or comes from a substance 8. Mass – how much matter is in a solid object or in any volume of liquid or gas 9. Permeability – how easily gases or liquids go through a substance 10. Porosity – how many small holes are in a substance 11. Pressure – how much force a liquid or gas produces when it presses against an area 12. Reactivity – how easily a chemical substance reacts 13. Solubility – how easily something can be dissolved to form a solution 14. Velocity – how quickly an object is travelling 15. Viscosity – how thick a liquid is 16. Volume – how much space is contained within an object or solid shape  A biodegradable substance is one which decays naturally.  A nanocapsule is a capsule which has a diameter smaller than 200 x 10-9 metres.  A removable object is one which can be put in one place then taken away again.  Endocytosis is a process by which molecules can move inside cells.  If a cell overexpresses a protein, it expresses too much of it.  If someone is given multiple doses of a drug, they receive it many times.  Intercellular communication is communication which happens between cells in the same organism.  When a drug is encapsulated, it is put inside a capsule.  If you ingest a substance, you take it into your body. 1. A microtome was used to slice 4 μm (micrometres) sections of the paraffin- embedded tissue. – to cut something into thin, flat pieces. 2. As the gas cools, the water vapour condenses and is caught in the conical flask. – To change from a gas to a liquid or solid state. 3. Devices in the two chimneys would filter out radioactive dust. – To remove solids from liquids or gases. 4. Haematoxylin-Eosin stains the cell nucleus blue and the cytoplasm pink. – To change the colour of something using a chemical. 5. Plutonium 239 was extracted from the sample using nitric acid. – To remove something or take something away. Page 101 Making a presentation POSSIBLE EXAM QUESTIONS  What is the difference between waterproof and water-resistant?  What is the difference between tablets and capsules?  What is the difference between pessary and suppository?  What is the difference between ropes and strings?  What is the difference between illness and disease?  What is the difference between veins and arteries?