Components of Cognition, Affect, and Behavior in Social Psychology, Resúmenes de Psicología Social

¡Descarga Components of Cognition, Affect, and Behavior in Social Psychology y más Resúmenes en PDF de Psicología Social solo en Docsity! 1 Made by MatyBuda ATTITUDES Elena M Zubieta (2020) Summary: 1. INTRODUCTION Attitudes have been, almost since the constitution of Social Psychology, one of the central topics of study of our discipline. So much so that it has been said that without attitudes we would not be able to understand Social Psychology, especially in North American production. As Germani (1966) pointed out, the interest in this concept arises from our need to have categories that allow us to reduce the complexity of social behavior and find its general causes. Attitudes are relevant in preventive campaigns and organizational interventions, and their main interest lies in their role in processes of social change. They act as mediators between the individual and his or her social context (Morales, Rebolloso, & Moya, 1994). For Triandis (1971, in Echebarría et. al., 1987), attitude is an emotionally charged idea that predisposes to actions in specific social situations. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) argue that attitudes are learned predispositions to respond favorably or unfavorably to a given object. Both definitions indicate that attitudes have an emotional and motivational aspect for actions directed toward a specific object. Attitudes can be organized into value systems. The term "ideology" designates an integrated set of beliefs and values that justify a group's policies (Katz and Scottland, 1959; in Echebarría et. al., 1987). Social attitudes are characterized by consistency in response to social objects, which facilitates the development of integrated systems of attitudes and values. These systems help us interpret and evaluate facts, reducing ambiguity. They are perceptual styles learned through the culture of belonging (Lindgren & Harvey, 1973). 2. MEASUREMENT AND DIMENSION OF ATTITUDES To understand the internal composition of attitudes and their complexity, we can use Eagly and Chaiken's (1993) definition that describes them as a psychological tendency expressed through the evaluation of an entity or object with some degree of favorability or unfavorability. By talking about tendency, it is implied that it is not something external to us or an overt and observable response, but an "internal state." Attitude is then conceived as a mediator between the stimuli of the external environment and our reactions, i.e., our overt evaluative responses. Since attitude is an internal state, we must infer it from our overt and observable responses, which will be approval or disapproval, attraction or rejection, approach, or avoidance, etc. In this evaluative tendency, we assign positive or negative aspects to a given object, which transcends the merely descriptive and is, therefore, connotative. Assessment involves valence (direction) and intensity. While valence refers to the positive or negative character that we attribute to the attitudinal object, intensity is related to the gradation of that valence. For example, we may have a positive or negative attitude toward a leader, but that character admits of varying degrees. It may also be that our attitude is indifferent or neutral because we do not have a formed attitude (non-attitude) or because our attitude is ambiguous, admitting positive and negative aspects with equal intensity. Thus, what is called the attitudinal continuum is represented, which integrates valence and intensity. It is important to distinguish which attitudes are central to our value system and which are more marginal. Centrality is complemented by salience, that is, the importance we give to each attitude in our lives. Not all core attitudes are equally salient. 2 Made by MatyBuda In addition, an attitude is always directed toward a specific object that must be clearly defined. The difference between having a negative attitude toward a leadership style in general and toward the leadership of a specific person, such as Peter, illustrates that the objects of our attitudes vary not only in content but also in level of specificity. 3. THE RESPONSES OR COMPONENTS OF THE ATTITUDE The internal psychological state known as attitude manifests itself through observable responses that are traditionally classified into three categories: cognitive, affective, and conative-behavioral. Although evaluation is a central characteristic of attitude, it can be manifested through these three distinct pathways that always refer to a single internal state. This coexistence and the inner complexity that this state implies are the reason these avenues of expression are also referred to as the elements or components of attitude. 3.1 COGNITIVE RESPONSES Often, we evaluate an object positively or negatively through thoughts or ideas that we call "beliefs." In a strict sense, "beliefs" include both the thoughts and ideas themselves and their outward expression. According to Morales, Rebolloso and Moya (1994), evaluation through cognitive responses follows a double sequence: first, we establish a probabilistic association between an object and its attributes. For example, if we consider the bureaucratic organization and its attribute of rigidity, the first step would be to establish the connection: "the bureaucratic organization has a probability (high/medium/low) of being made up of rigid individuals." In the second step, we evaluate this association, based on the positive or negative connotation of the attribute. If rigidity has a negative connotation, a strong association with bureaucratic organization would lead to a negative evaluation of the latter. 3.2 AFFECTIVE RESPONSES This includes the feelings, moods, and emotions associated with the object of our attitude. Although some authors have suggested that emotion is the only component of attitude, it is clear that evaluation and affect are distinct concepts and that evaluation can be manifested not only through affect, but also through cognitions and behaviors. According to the consistency hypothesis, it is to be expected that a negative evaluation of the bureaucratic organization and the rigidity of its members will be accompanied by negative feelings and emotions towards these expressions. 3.3 CONATIVE-BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES Behaviors can also be placed on the attitudinal continuum. Some behaviors can be terribly negative, such as avoiding interacting with rigid individuals, while others can be incredibly positive, such as collaborating in the actions proposed by Peter's situational leadership. In attitudinal studies, in addition to considering behavior itself, behavioral intentions are also considered, such as agreement to support Peter's leadership style or disagreement to interact with an organization due to its bureaucratic rigidity. 3.4 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EVALUATIVE RESPONSES OR ATTITUDINAL COMPONENTS From a theoretical point of view, attitude is an internal state of evaluation, while the cognitive, affective, and conative-behavioral components are the ways in which it is expressed. Methodologically, although these components are different from each other, they all refer to the same variable: attitude. Each type of attitudinal response can be measured with different indices, but they must be positively related to adequately reflect the attitude in question. 5 Made by MatyBuda Explanation and conclusion: All this analysis of attitudes explains that they are fundamental in Social Psychology, helping to simplify social behavior and its causes. Germani (1966) underlines their relevance in preventive campaigns and social changes, acting as mediators between the individual and his or her context. For Triandis (1971) and Fishbein and Ajzen (1975), attitudes are learned emotional predispositions that influence our actions toward a specific object, being emotionally and motivationally meaningful. We can also mention that attitudes are organized into value systems and ideologies, helping to interpret and evaluate facts. According to Eagly and Chaiken (1993), an attitude is an evaluative, internalized, and not directly observable psychological tendency. Observable responses allow us to infer this internal attitude, which assigns valence (positive or negative) and intensity to attitudinal objects, forming an attitudinal continuum. The centrality and salience of an attitude reflect its importance in our value system and daily life. Another aspect is that attitudes are expressed in cognitive, affective, and behavioral components, all referring to a single internal state. Beliefs, emotions, and behaviors are manifestations of attitude, albeit methodologically distinct. Attitudes are also formed from cognitive, affective, and behavioral backgrounds, influenced by experiences, conditioning, and repetitions. Structurally, attitudes show bipolarity, consistency, and ambivalence. They can be neutral, consistent, or inconsistent depending on their origin (cognitive, affective, or behavioral). Ambivalence arises from evaluatively mixed beliefs, affecting stability and relationship to behavior. Finally, attitudes fulfill essential functions: knowledge, instrumental, ego-defensive, value-expressive, and social adjustment. They help order the world, maximize rewards, defend the ego, express values, and facilitate social integration. Prejudiced attitudes serve ideological and separating functions, justifying inequalities and mistreatment. To conclude, attitudes are complex psychological structures essential in Social Psychology, influencing our actions and mediating between the individual and his or her social environment. They are expressed in cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses, and serve important roles in our adaptation and perception of the world, playing a crucial role in social formation and change. Main Ideas: - Attitudes have been a central theme in Social Psychology since its inception. - They are relevant in preventive campaigns and organizational interventions. - They act as mediators between the individual and their social context. - Attitudes are learned predispositions to respond favorably or unfavorably to an object. - They have an emotional and motivational aspect for actions directed towards a specific object. - Attitudes can be organized into value systems and ideologies. - They are characterized by consistency in response to social objects. - They are styles of perception learned through the culture of belonging. - Attitude is a psychological tendency expressed through the evaluation of an entity with some degree of favorability or unfavorability. - Attitude is an "internal state" that mediates between external stimuli and our reactions. - Evaluation involves valence (direction) and intensity. - Centrality and salience are important in the value system. - The attitude is always directed toward a specific object. - Attitudes have cognitive, affective, and conative-behavioral components. - Probabilistic beliefs and associations determine cognitive responses. - Emotions and feelings determine affective responses. - Behaviors and behavioral intentions determine conative-behavioral responses. 6 Made by MatyBuda - The consistency of evaluative responses reflects the attitude in question. - Attitudes arise from experiences, information, beliefs, and affective processes. - Fishbein and Ajzen's Theory of Reasoned Action highlights the importance of subjective probability and subjective desirability. - Classical and instrumental conditioning influence the formation of attitudes. - Direct experience with the attitudinal object strengthens the formation of attitudes. - Cognitive dissonance theory postulates that certain behaviors produce significant and permanent attitudinal changes. - Bipolarity, consistency, and ambivalence are central aspects of attitudes. - Attitudes fulfill functions of knowledge, instrumental, ego-defensive, value-expressive, and social adjustment. - Prejudiced or ethnocentric attitudes serve an ideological and separating function.