Teorías del origen de la vida en la Tierra, Monografías, Ensayos de Biología

¡Descarga Teorías del origen de la vida en la Tierra y más Monografías, Ensayos en PDF de Biología solo en Docsity! CBTIS 8 6th semester of technological baccalaureate THEORIES OF ORIGIN OF LIFE IN THE EARTH Explanations of the origin of life, abiogenesis and the hypotheses and theories that attempt to explain the origin of life. This essay on the Origin of Life and Abiogenesis is made by Fernando Martinez Andrade, which was used as one of the multiple works created by me in high school to practice, understand and comprehend about the beautiful subject of Biology in order to study for my participation in the "Festival Académico 2022 DGETI" in march of 2022 held throughout the Mexican nation. I was first place at the local level and third at the state level. (The original essay is in Spanish; this is a version of it in English). Origin of Earth The Earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago through a process known as accretion, which is the gradual accumulation of matter to form larger bodies. According to current scientific understanding, the process of Earth's formation can be divided into several stages: 1. The Solar System's formation: The solar system formed from a giant cloud of gas and dust, known as the solar nebula, which collapsed under its own gravity. This cloud eventually became hot enough for nuclear reactions to occur, giving birth to the Sun. 2. The formation of the planetary disk: Once the Sun formed, it's gravity pulled in the remaining gas and dust and formed a spinning disk of matter around it. 3. The formation of planetesimals: Within the disk, small particles of dust and ice clumped together to form planetesimals, which are small, rock-like bodies that can range in size from a few centimeters to several kilometers. 4. The accretion of planetesimals: Planetesimals collide and stick together, forming larger bodies called protoplanets. Through this process, a number of protoplanets formed in the early solar system, including the protoplanet that would eventually become the Earth. 5. The formation of the Moon: The Earth collided with a Mars-sized object, called Theia, it was a massive impact that created a ring of debris that eventually coalesced to form the Moon. 6. The final stages: The Earth continued to accrete material and grew in size. Its early atmosphere was primarily composed of methane, ammonia, and water vapor, with no oxygen. However, as the Earth cooled, volcanic activity increased, and through a process called outgassing, these gases were released into the atmosphere. This allowed for the formation of oceans and the emergence of life. Early Earth Hadean epoch The Hadean epoch is the earliest known period in the Earth's history, and it lasted from the formation of the Earth around 4.5 billion years ago until around 4 billion years ago. This time is named after the Greek god of the underworld, Hades, reflecting the harsh conditions that are thought to have existed during this time. During the Hadean, the Earth was a vastly different place than it is today. It was a hot, molten mass with a surface constantly bombarded by meteorites and comets. The intense heat and pressure caused by the impacts caused intense volcanic activity, releasing gases that would eventually form the Earth's atmosphere. This process also caused the formation of the Earth's oceans. The Hadean environment was extremely hostile to life as we know it. The surface of the Earth was so hot that water vapor would have instantly boiled off into space, and the intense radiation from the sun would have sterilized the surface. This means that if life did exist on Earth during the Hadean, it would have had to survive in subsurface oceans or deep underground. It's worth noting that there's not much direct evidence of the Hadean time. The Earth's oldest rocks are dated to around 4 billion years old, which means that most of the rock record from the Hadean has been erased by erosion, tectonic activity and weathering. In addition, the intense heat and pressure of the Hadean would have caused most minerals to recrystallize, further obscuring the rock record of this period. It's also important to mention that the idea of the Hadean Epoch is still a topic of scientific debate, and researchers continue to explore and study the evidence available to understand more about this epoch. Hadean and the origin of biomolecules and Life in the Earth During the Hadean, the Earth was a vastly different place than it is today. It was a hot, molten mass with a surface constantly bombarded by meteorites and comets. The intense heat and pressure caused by the impacts caused intense volcanic activity, releasing gases that would eventually form the Earth's atmosphere. This process also caused the formation of the Earth's oceans. The Hadean environment was extremely hostile to life as we know it. The surface of the Earth was so hot that water vapor would have instantly boiled off into space, and the intense radiation from the sun would have sterilized the surface. This means that if life did exist on Earth during the Hadean, it would have had to survive in subsurface oceans or deep underground. The conditions for life on Earth were not favorable until the Earth's crust cooled and the atmosphere stabilized, which was not until around 4 billion years ago. The origin of the first biomolecules is still a topic of ongoing research and debate, but scientists propose several hypotheses to explain it. One of the most widely accepted hypotheses is the Miller-Urey experiment, which showed that a mixture of simple gases, such as methane, ammonia, and water vapor, subjected to an electrical spark, can produce a range of organic compounds such as amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Another hypothesis is the "prebiotic soup" theory, which suggests that the organic compounds found in the primitive atmosphere of the Earth reacted with the water to form a "soup" of simple organic molecules, such as amino acids and sugars. These molecules would have eventually led to the formation of more complex molecules, such as RNA and DNA. Alternative hypothesis is the "metabolism-first" theory, which proposes that the first biomolecules were not genetic molecules such as RNA or DNA, but metabolic ones. These molecules would have been capable of performing simple chemical reactions that sustained the existence of simple cells, such as the transfer of electrons, or simple metabolic pathways. It's worth mentioning that most of the direct evidences of Hadean time is lost due to erosion, tectonic activity and weathering, and scientists have only indirect evidences that sustained the existence of simple cells, such as the transfer of electrons, or simple metabolic pathways. The origin of life on Earth is still a topic of ongoing research and debate. Most of the direct evidences of the Archean time are lost due to erosion, tectonic activity and weathering, and scientists have only indirect evidences such as the study of ancient minerals and rocks that provide information about the conditions that existed on Earth during the Archean Eon. The oldest known fossils are around 3.5 billion years old, and it's thought that life on Earth may have arisen around that time. Another hypothesis is the "metabolism-first" theory, which proposes that the first living organisms were not complex cells with genetic material, but simple, self- sustaining metabolic systems that were able to perform simple chemical reactions. Origin of the life in the Earth The origin of life on Earth is a topic of ongoing research and debate among scientists. While there is no scientific consensus on the specific details of how life originated on our planet, the most widely accepted scientific theories propose that life arose from non-living matter through natural processes. This idea is known as abiogenesis. One of the most famous experiments on the origin of life was conducted by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey in the 1950s. They simulated the conditions of the early Earth and showed that simple organic compounds, such as amino acids, could be formed from inorganic precursors under conditions similar to those thought to exist on the primitive Earth. Miller-Urey Experiment This experiment provided some of the first experimental evidence for the idea that life could have arisen through natural processes. Currently, the most widely accepted scientific theory of abiogenesis is the RNA world hypothesis, which proposes that RNA, a molecule similar to DNA that can both store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions, was the first self-replicating molecule, and eventually gave rise to DNA and proteins and other molecules that form the basis of life. The theory suggests that early in Earth's history, non- biological chemical reactions produced a diverse array of small organic molecules, such as sugars, lipids, and amino acids. Over time, these molecules became more complex and eventually formed RNA molecules that were able to store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions. Figure 1.1 Miller-Urey experiment It is worth mentioning that there is another hypothesis called Panspermia which is based on the idea that life may have originated on other planets and then been transported to Earth through comets or meteorites. This theory also is still an active area of research, and scientists are currently investigating the ability of microorganisms to survive the harsh conditions of space. Theories of the origin of the life in the Earth Exist much theories and hypothesis of the origin of the life in the Earth, these are some of the ones I have collected. Abiogenesis Abiogenesis is the scientific theory that explains the natural process by which life originated from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds (Miller, Urey, & Schlesinger, 1953). According to the theory, life began on Earth around 3.5 billion years ago, through the formation of the first simple, self-replicating, and genetically diverse forms of life (Oparin, 1924; Haldane, 1929). The theory suggests that simple organic compounds, such as amino acids and nucleotides, gradually assembled into more complex structures, eventually leading to the formation of living organisms. One of the earliest proponents of abiogenesis was the ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander, who proposed that living organisms arose from non-living matter in the oceans. In the 19th century, scientists such as Ernst Haeckel and Charles Darwin advanced the idea, and in the 1920s and 1930s, a Russian biochemist named Alexander Oparin and an English geneticist named J.B.S. Haldane proposed that the first living organisms may have arisen in a "primordial soup" of simple organic compounds. In the 1950s and 1960s, scientists Stanley Miller and Harold Urey performed a famous experiment in which they simulated the conditions of the early Earth and demonstrated that simple organic compounds could be formed from inorganic precursors under conditions thought to be similar to those on the primitive Earth. History The origins of the theory of spontaneous generation can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy, where philosophers such as Anaxagoras and Aristotle proposed that living organisms could arise from non-living matter. These early philosophers observed that living organisms such as mice, maggots, and even frogs seemed to appear in inanimate materials such as dirt, hay, or rotting organic matter, and they proposed that these organisms had arisen spontaneously from these materials. During the Middle Ages, the theory of spontaneous generation was adopted by the Catholic Church and incorporated into its teachings. The idea was supported by the observations that microorganisms such as bacteria could be seen in spoiled food, and other rotting matter, which was taken as evidence for spontaneous generation. In the 17th century, the Italian scientist Francesco Redi, performed an experiment that seemed to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation, He observed that flies did not appear on meat when it was covered with a fine mesh that kept flies away, while flies were present in uncovered meat. This experiment cast doubt on the idea of spontaneous generation but this evidence was largely ignored or discounted. In the 19th century, the theory of spontaneous generation faced renewed scrutiny. The French chemist Louis Pasteur conducted a series of experiments that provided strong evidence against the theory of spontaneous generation, through a series of experiments he was able to show that microorganisms only grew in nutrient solutions that had not been sterilized and in the presence of air, but not in sterilized solutions. He also showed that bacteria do not spontaneously generate in a sealed flask, this showed that the organisms come from outside, not from the solution itself. Pasteur's work was widely accepted and it marked the end of the spontaneous generation theory, it was replaced by the theory of biogenesis, which holds that living organisms can only arise from other living organisms, and that life cannot arise from non-living matter. In modern times, some scientists have proposed that simple forms of life could have arisen through natural processes, this is known as abiogenesis, it is a distinct theory from spontaneous generation as it posits a gradual and gradual process of chemical evolution leading to the formation of life and it is supported by several scientific evidence and experiments, but it's still ongoing research. Biopoiesis The theory of biopoiesis, also known as "biological self-organization," is a scientific theory that proposes that living organisms can arise from non-living matter through natural processes, similar to abiogenesis. The theory suggests that under certain conditions, self-organizing chemical and physical processes can give rise to the emergence of living systems. This is different from the traditional theory of biogenesis, which holds that living organisms can only arise from other living organisms, and that life cannot arise from non-living matter. The theory of biopoiesis proposes that living systems emerge through a gradual process of self-organization, starting from simple chemical compounds and building up to more complex systems. This process is thought to be driven by the interactions between molecules and the environment, which can lead to the formation of complex structures and systems. The theory of biopoiesis is a relatively new idea in the field of origin of life research and it is still an active area of study. Some scientists have proposed that the chemical and physical conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the emergence of living systems through self-organization. The research in this field is based on the idea that living systems have specific properties, such as the ability to store information, to replicate, to respond to the environment, and to evolve. Scientists are currently researching the idea that biopoiesis might be explained by the emergence of autocatalytic chemical systems or by the interactions between physical structures and chemical reactions. Scientists in different disciplines, such as chemistry, physics, and computer science, have contributed to the understanding of self-organization, this multidisciplinary approach to study self-organization has led to several insights about how living systems might have emerged. One of the proposed theories to explain the emergence of life through self- organization is the concept of Autocatalytic sets (ACS), which propose that sets of chemical reactions that catalyze each other, leading to the formation of self- replicating entities, that can evolve and adapt. It is important to keep in mind that the theory of biopoiesis is still a hypothesis and it's still an active area of research, and although it has gained some traction and support from some scientists, it's not yet widely Panspermia Panspermia is the hypothesis that life on Earth may have originated from comets or meteorites carrying simple organic compounds from other parts of the universe. This theory suggests that life may be common in the universe and that it could be transported from one planet to another through space (Wickramasinghe, 2004). The idea of panspermia has been around for centuries, with ancient Greek philosophers such as Anaxagoras proposing that life on Earth may have originated from comets. The modern scientific version of the theory was first proposed by the Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius in 1903. He proposed that spores of microorganisms could survive the harsh conditions of space and travel through the universe on comets or meteorites, eventually reaching a new habitable planet where they could take root and evolve. In recent years, several studies have provided evidence that supports the idea that life could survive the harsh conditions of space, including experiments in which microorganisms have been shown to survive exposure to the radiation, vacuum, and extreme temperatures of space. However, it's also worth noting that finding direct evidence for the transport of life on meteorites or comets is difficult, most of the studies are based on simulations and laboratory experiments. It's important to note that this theory is still a topic of scientific debate and it is not confirmed by direct evidence. The idea of transferring life through space by comets or meteorites impact is considered as a viable hypothesis, but it's still not confirmed by evidence. Directed panspermia The theory of Directed Panspermia is a variation of the panspermia hypothesis that proposes that life on Earth may have been deliberately sent here by intelligent beings from another planet, solar system or galaxy. According to this theory, life on another planet or galaxy may have reached a level of technological development sufficient to make it possible for them to send living organisms, or the building blocks of life, across space. They could have done this through a variety of means, such as sending a probe carrying the organisms or by launching a rocket with a payload of spores or microbial life. The theory of Directed Panspermia is based on the idea that advanced civilizations, potentially from other star systems or galaxies, would have the means, and possibly the motivation, to send organisms or their building blocks across interstellar space to seed new life on planets that have the potential for supporting it. It is postulated that such civilizations would have the capability of identifying, reaching and colonizing new planets. It's important to note that this theory is speculative and it is not supported by any scientific evidence. The idea of intelligent civilizations sending life forms or its building blocks to other planets is considered to be a topic of science fiction, rather than a scientific hypothesis. Cryopoiesis One proposed theory of how life could have arisen on Earth is through the process of cryopoiesis, or "ice life," which suggests that life may have originated from ice. This theory proposes that life could have emerged in the form of self-replicating ice crystals or "icesomes," which would have been able to replicate, evolve, and eventually give rise to life forms. The theory of cryopoiesis is based on the idea that certain types of ice, such as water ice, can form complex structures and display properties similar to those of living organisms. For example, some ices are able to replicate through a process known as ice crystallization. Additionally, ice crystals can also undergo a process of natural selection, where certain variations of ice crystals are more likely to survive and replicate than others, in a similar way to how living organisms evolve. This theory could account for the fact that life on Earth is based on water, as ice crystals would have been able to form and replicate in the early Earth's oceans or in icy comets. Some scientists have proposed that the process of cryopoiesis could also have been facilitated by the presence of simple organic molecules, such as amino acids, in the ice crystals. These molecules could have acted as catalysts to promote the formation of complex structures and eventually give rise to life. It is worth mentioning that the cryopoiesis theory is not widely accepted, its considered a speculative hypothesis, also there is no direct evidence found to support this theory as the origin of life on Earth. Clay theory The theory of clay-based abiogenesis, also known as the "clay hypothesis," proposes that life on Earth could have originated from clay minerals. According to this theory, clay minerals could have served as a template or scaffold for the formation of complex biomolecules, such as RNA and DNA, which are the building blocks of life. The clay minerals could have also facilitated the formation of vesicles, which are small, spherical structures made of lipid molecules that are thought to have been the first proto-cellular structures. The theory of clay-based abiogenesis is based on the idea that clay minerals have several properties that make them suitable for the emergence of life. For example, clay minerals have a high surface area-to-volume ratio, which means that they have a large number of surface sites where chemical reactions can take place. Additionally, clay minerals are known to be able to form spontaneously in the presence of water and to interact with organic molecules, which could have facilitated the formation of complex biomolecules. It is also important to note that clay minerals can catalyze chemical reactions, this mechanism could have been a key player in the emergence of life, thus promoting the formation of complex organic molecules. The clay hypothesis, is still a theoretical proposal, based on simulations and laboratory experiments, there is currently no direct evidence that supports the idea of clay-based abiogenesis as the origin of life on Earth, However, the research on this field is still ongoing, and new findings can provide insights in the future. RNA World hypothesis The RNA World hypothesis is a theory that proposes that RNA (ribonucleic acid) was the first self-replicating molecule that gave rise to life on Earth. The theory suggests that RNA, which is a molecule that can store genetic information, catalyze chemical reactions, and replicate itself, could have been the precursor to all other forms of life. The theory is supported by the discovery of ribozymes, which are RNA molecules that have enzymatic activity, can catalyze chemical reactions, showing that RNA can perform some of the functions of proteins. The RNA World hypothesis proposes that the first life forms on Earth were made of RNA and that other biomolecules, such as DNA and proteins, were later co-opted to perform specific functions in living organisms. It suggests that RNA was able to self-replicate and eventually evolve into more complex structures, leading to the emergence of life forms as we know today. Scientists have proposed that the RNA World could have emerged through different mechanisms, such as the formation of RNA molecules through chemical reactions in the early Earth's oceans or the replication of RNA molecules in clay minerals, this process could have been facilitated by the presence of other simple organic It is also thought that during the RNA World, there could have been a transition to the emergence of proteins, which could have been the result of the selection of RNA molecules that could perform specific catalytic reactions. Proteins have a wider range of catalytic abilities than RNA and could have allowed for the emergence of more complex metabolic pathways and the evolution of cells. It's important to note that this transition from RNA to DNA, PNA and eventually proteins is still a matter of speculation, with no direct evidence to support it, and it remains an active area of research. Coevolution with the iron-sulfur world (RNA-peptide world) However, it has also been proposed that the evolution of life on Earth could have been a more complex process involving a coevolution of different molecules and systems, such as the iron-sulfur world (ISW) and the RNA-peptide world. The iron-sulfur world (ISW) hypothesis proposes that the first forms of life on Earth were based on iron-sulfur clusters, which are chemical compounds that can catalyze a wide range of reactions. These clusters can perform essential functions such as energy metabolism, replication and molecular recognition. The ISW hypothesis suggests that iron-sulfur clusters could have played a key role in the emergence of life on Earth by providing a source of energy and catalyzing the formation of RNA, DNA, and proteins. The coevolution of the RNA world and the iron-sulfur world (RNA-peptide world) hypothesis, proposes that both systems, the RNA and ISW, could have evolved simultaneously and cooperated in the emergence of life. The idea is that the RNA would have provided the genetic information and replication capabilities, while the ISW would have provided the energy metabolism and catalysis necessary for life. It is thought that the interactions between these two systems could have been key in the emergence of more complex metabolic pathways, eventually leading to the emergence of cells and the first organisms. It's important to note that this coevolution of the RNA World and the Iron-sulfur World, is still a theoretical proposal, and there is no direct evidence that confirms it as the origin of life on Earth, but it is an active area of research. The Oparin-Haldane Theory The Oparin-Haldane theory, also known as the "coacervate" or "primordial soup" theory, is a hypothesis that proposes that the first forms of life on Earth emerged from simple organic molecules in the primordial oceans through a gradual process of chemical evolution. The theory was proposed independently by Russian scientist Alexander Oparin in 1924 and British scientist J.B.S Haldane in 1929, and it postulates that the early Earth's atmosphere was composed mainly of methane, ammonia, and water vapor, and that through the action of energy from lightning, volcanoes and other sources, these simple organic molecules could have undergone chemical reactions to form more complex molecules, such as amino acids, sugars, and lipids. Oparin and Haldane proposed that these organic molecules would have formed into droplets, called coacervates, which would have been able to grow and divide, creating a protocellular structure that would have been capable of performing metabolic reactions, such as photosynthesis. Over time, these protocells would have evolved into more complex cells, leading to the emergence of life as we know it. It's important to note that while this theory was groundbreaking and influential, it was also not without its criticisms, and many scientists later expanded on the original Oparin-Haldane theory and proposed modifications. Also, there is no direct evidence that confirms it as the origin of life on Earth, but it is considered as one of the foundations of abiogenesis research. Life Began in Deep-Sea Vents The deep-sea vent theory proposes that the first forms of life on Earth emerged around hydrothermal vents, which are openings on the ocean floor that emit hot, mineral-rich fluids. The theory suggests that the energy and chemicals present in these vents provided an environment in which the building blocks of life could have formed and eventually led to the emergence of simple organisms. It proposes that in the deep-sea hydrothermal vents, the hot water discharging from these vents is rich in hydrogen, methane and other simple organic molecules which could have served as a source of energy and building blocks for the first living organisms. The minerals in the vent fluids would have provided a surface for the assembly of these molecules into more complex structures, leading to the formation of protocells and eventually to the emergence of life. The theory is also supported by the discovery of microbial communities that thrive in these harsh environments, and by research showing that the hydrothermal vent fluids contain the types of organic compounds that are considered building blocks of life. 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