Appunti completi delle lezioni di linguistica inglese, Appunti di Linguistica Inglese

Scarica Appunti completi delle lezioni di linguistica inglese e più Appunti in PDF di Linguistica Inglese solo su Docsity! Unit 1: INTRODUCTION TO SFL / FG Literature is art crafted with language. Linguistics: the scientific (in order to become a language expert) study of language or of particular languages. We want to become experts in the english language. There are many branches of linguistics and applications. The branches of linguistics are:  Cognitive linguistics - how our brain functions, how it works to produce language;  Structural linguistics - about the structure and formal aspects;  Functional linguistics – take into account the speaker’s and the hearer’s side, and the communicative needs of the speaker. The applications are:  Comparative linguistics - comparison between two languages or more;  Computational linguistics - about technology, algorithms, analyses of language through computers and softwares;  Forensic linguistics - legal linguistics  Historical linguistics - how languages change over time. We study functional grammar (FG), which focuses on grammar: contextual meaning, language in use, the main tenets (the basics). It’s part of the systemic functional linguistics (SFL). FG is functional and descriptive because its aim is to describe how language functions.  Descriptive grammar based on empirical research, not a prescriptive one which tells you what you can / cannot say, including rules for correcting what are often referred to as grammatical errors. FG, in other words, is not a grammar of etiquette or linguistic table manners. DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE Formal Functional Primary concern structure meanings Unit of analysis sentence whole text * Language concern syntex semantics** Language a set of rules for sentence construction a resource for meaning making *in our analyses, we break the text down into clauses. For us, a text can be written or spoken, it’s not defined by its length (very long or just a word). The text is an instance of language having meaning in its context. **Semantics - system of meanings (Lexico-grammar - system of wording; Phonology / graphology - system of sounds, symbols) Functional grammar is useful for:  Empowering approach - it helps us understand how a language functions;  Appliable approach - used to talk about real-world problems and issues. In fact, it is used in:  Discourse analysis (e.g. critical analysis of media discourse, including social media, political discourse, advertising,...);  Stylistics (e.g. studying the style, the language of literature);  Translation studies;  Foreign language teaching and learning;  Register studies; Basic tenets of FG: Context - language takes place in cultural and situational context; it depends on it. The importance of the context: 1. Context of culture: (it has to do with culture, with the background of communication) embraces everything - beliefs, traditions, views, wider culture, social atmosphere, evolution (we are in Italy, being italian and share traditions, we are at the time of a pandemic situation, being at university); 2. Context of situation (here and now, the moment of the communication) it’s smaller, here we find language. It has three variables: a. Field (what is going on?): in terms of social activity (taking part of a lesson, going out with friends) and subject matter (linguistic object) - this has an impact on the language we are using; b. Tenor (who is taking part?): in terms of social roles (who we are in society, students and teacher) and discourse roles (linguistic distinction, active or passive, speaker or who is listening, so it changes very fast) - it has also an impact on the language we are using; c. Mode (what is the role of language?): in terms of channel (oral channel, graphic channel (slide)), medium and other features, like if it’s a monologue or dialogue, spontaneous or structured (the lesson is a dialogue because also students speak, it’s not spontaneous for the teacher that prepared the lesson but for student is spontaneous because asks). So, we can say that: Systemic Functional Grammar is a theory of grammar that focuses on meaning. It’s oriented towards semantics. It focuses on language in use, in context; It provides a full understanding of the structure / meaning connection for each and every clause in a language, with 3 simultaneous views of the clause, which are linked to the 3 variables of the context of situation. Unit 2: GOING IN THROUGH FORM Now we focus on the ways in which we can split up the sentence into parts, so that we can later go on to look at the particular functions each part serves. Clause - a unit of grammatical analysis (=clausola a volte, frase).  Sentence - a unit of writing that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. Sentences can be made up of more than one clause. Some clauses are also sentences at the same time. Structural labels: the rank scale - bigger units of language made up of smaller units, including the constituents of language. The rank scale refers to something we all know about, even just intuitively: we have a Russian doll, smaller units can be put into bigger units (smaller boxes into bigger boxes: sentences, clauses, groups and phrases, words, morphemes). The units can be ranked on a scale; from top to bottom. Clauses can combine into clause complexes, example: (1) while we have faced challenges before, (2) this one is different: (3) we join with all nations in a common endeavor (3 clauses, one sentence). Clauses are made up of words but, in between clauses and words, there is an intermediate level: groups and phrases: (while*) we - have faced - challenges - before, - this one - is – different: - we - join - with all nations - in a common endeavor. Some groups / phrases are made up of more than one word, while others are made up of just one word.  *While is neither a group nor a phrase, but a conjunction. There are different types of groups and phrases based on the constituents of language:  Nominal groups (NG) - made up of a noun (we, challenges, this one, different); Field - Clause as representation of reality, what we find outside language, lexico-grammatical systems: transitivity, clauses in combination  The field influences the clause. Speakers when talking make choices, and these options are in these systems. The system of transitivity comprehends options that we use when we are talking about reality. (Meanings = functions / Ideational meanings = ideational metafunction). The three metafunctions of language, the three layers of meanings in the clause: Clause as representation Ideational metafunction (language functions to represent extra-linguistic “reality”). Divided into: Experiential - Transitivity Logical – Clauses in combination Clause as exchange Interpersonal metafunction Mood, modality, appraisal Clause as message Textual metafunctions Structural cohesion, non- structural cohesion Language is a way of representing conventionally, using words, our experience of the word. Transitivity includes a set of resources for referring to entities in the world and the ways in which those entities act on or relate to each other. The transitivity system includes:  A process (function, VG);  Typically, one or more participants in the process (NG);  Often, one or more circumstances, which provide additional information about the event (PP, AG, NG). Remember that conjunctions (like and) have no function in Transitivity. Exemple: “The sun rose on the same tidy front gardens and lit up the brass number four in the Dursley’s front door” the process is rising, the participant is the sun, the circumstance is on the same tidy front gardens (Construe=to give linguistic form to something). There are six process categories, each with its own participant roles: 1. Material processes are physical processes of doing, creating, changing, happening. The main participants are the actor (the doer, animate or inanimate, human or not) and often a goal (an entity - human being, animal, object) that undergoes the process. Exemple: the sun (actor) rose (material process) on the same tidy front garden (circumstance) and lit up (material process) the brass number four (goal) on the Dursley front door (circumstance). Exemple 2: he (actor) rolled (material process) onto his back (circumstance). Exemple 3: the brass number four (goal) was lit up (material process) by the sun (actor); 2. Mental processes express thoughts, feelings, desires, perceptions, etc. They typically have only animate participants as doers. They can project other clauses. The main participants are the senser (who thinks, feels, wants, sees, hears, etc.), often a phenomenon (the entity that is sensed). Exemple: he (senser) tried to remember (mental process) the dream [[he had been having]] (phenomenon). Exemple 2: Harry (senser) heard (mental process) her [[walking toward the kitchen]] (phenomenon); 3. Relational processes express states of being and having. They can be either attributive (they assign an attribute, a generic quality, to an entity), or identifying (they assign an identity to an entity). An attribute answers the question “how” and the identifier to the question “who”. The main participants in an attributive relational process are the carrier and the attribute. In an identifying relational process, they are called identified and identifier. Exemple: Dudley Durlsey (carrier) was (relational process) very clever (attribute). Exemple 2: Dudley (identified) was (relational process) Harry’s only cousin (identifier); 4. Verbal processes express what is said. Like mental processes, they can project other clauses (again, we’ll say more about this in Unit 4). The main participants are the sayer (the human or human-like entity that carries out the process) and the receiver (the addressee). There may be other participants as well; however, not all of them are necessarily construed (i.e., present) in the lexico-grammatical structure of the clause. Exemple: <get up!> (projected clause) she (sayer) screeched (verbal process); 5. Behavioral processes (between material and mental) indicate largely involuntary psychological and physiological activity (cry, cough, sneeze, smile, grumble). The participant is the behaver (the doer). Exemple: Harry (behaver) groaned (behavioral process); 6. Existential Processes express existence and typically take the form «there» + verb to be. The participant is the existent (the entity - person, thing, abstraction, etc. - that is said to exist). Note that the element «there» has no function in transitivity. Exemple: there had been (existential process) a flying motorcycle (existen) in it (circumstances). So, we can say that transitivity describes our experience of the world: ideational experiential meaning. Transitivity is not a property of the verb, but an all system. It falls within the field / what is going on? / clause as representation. It is analyzed in terms of processes, participants and circumstances. The order in which participants occur does not change their experiential role (e.g. «They make food»  Actor ^ Mat. Process ^ Goal, but «Food is made by them» Goal ^ Mat. Process ^ Actor). ^ = is followed by Provide a Transitivity analysis (Process, Participant(s), Circumstances) of the clauses in the text below, as in the example. Note that conjunctions and embedded clauses are *not* analysed. (When) I (actor) first (circumstance) arrived (material process) / I (actor) moved (material process) into a house [in North London] with a bunch [of my mates] (circumstance). // It (carrier) was (relational process) [an old, condemned] house / [[that the landlord hadn’t made any improvements to in decades]] (attribute). // The wind (actor) blew (material process) straight through the walls (circumstances: how and when) / (and) (there) was (existential process) fungus (existent) / [[(that was) growing on the wallpaper]] (existent) / (and) the garden [at the back] (carrier) was (relational process) just a rubbish dump (attribute). // It (carrier) was (relational process) your typical London garden (attribute), / which (attribute) in the winter (circumstance) is (relational process) dead (attribute), / (and) in the summer (circumstance) manages (somehow) to grow (material process) about six feet [of grass] in the space [of a month] (circumstance). What transitivity is used for? Translation studies: comparing text with its translations, making translation choices,...; Critical discourse analysis: studying the representation of events or people in the media, in advertising, in political discourse,…; Unit 4: IDEATIONAL LOGICAL MEANINGS (FIELD - Clauses in combination) From ideational meaning to logical meaning. In a clause complex each clause taking singularly will have transitivity structure representing reality. Now we will talk about clauses in combination.  Eemple: when she opened the door, professor luporini saw the student outside. Which is the link between these two events? It’s a temporal relation. “When”, that is a conjunction, so remember that in transitivity this hasn’t meaning, conjunctions in general aren’t considered in transitivity.  In clauses in combination there are different systems: 1. TAXIS - it refers to the dependency status of the clauses in a clause complex. The term Hypotaxis (=subordination) is used to refer to a relationship in which one clause is dependent on another (called ‘main’ clause). The term Parataxis (=coordination) is used when two independent clauses are joined. The difference between Hypo- and Parataxis mainly depends on the kind of connector (or connecting device) used to link the clauses. Usually there are a lot of Parataxis, Hypotaxis is mainly used in writing text; 2. LOGICO-SEMANTIC RELATIONS: a. Expansion —> extension, elaboration and enhancement; b. Projection —> joining of clauses through verbal or mental processes. Verbal processes project locutions, mental processes project ideas (reported or quoted). The difference between expansion and projection (and, within expansion, between extension, elaboration and enhancement) depends on the logical relation being set up between the clauses. Exemple: when she opened the door, / prof Luporini saw the students outside – Hypotaxis + logical-semantic relation: temporal. Types of expansion expansion: elaboration = equals, extending + is added to, enhancing x is multiplied by. Types of projection: locution “ saying, idea ‘ thinking. Elaboration: in elaboration, one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by further specifying or describing it. The secondary clause does not introduce a new element into the picture but rather provides a further characterization of one that is already there, restating it, clarifying it, refining it. Elaboration and Taxis:  Paratactic Elaboration: the elaborating clause may be introduced by ‘for example’, ‘for instance’, ‘e.g.’, ‘that is’, ‘i.e.’, ‘namely’, ‘viz.’, etc. Paratactic Elaboration functions to provide an explanation / exposition (restating something in other words), an exemplification or a clarification. «I do what I can to make the word a happier place: for example, I had my coffee today»;  Hypotactic Elaboration: the elaborating clause is a non-defining relative clause, either finite or non-finite. Hypotactic Elaboration provides a description of one of the elements we find in the ‘main’ clause. Example with a finite, non-defining relative clause: «half an hour later, Harry, who couldn’t believe his luck, was sitting in the back of the Dursleys’ car on the way to the zoo for the first time in his life». Example with a non-finite, non-defining relative clause: «Harry, still staring at his letter, went back to the kitchen». Time-out: difference between defining and non-defining relative clauses «The only thing [[Harry liked about his own appearance]] was a very thin scar on his forehead» “(that) Harry liked about his own appearance” is a defining relative clause: it is embedded and functions as a Post-Modifier (Qualifier) in the NG The only thing. «Half an hour later, Harry, who couldn’t believe his luck, was sitting in the back of the Dursleys’ car» “who couldn’t believe his luck” is a non-defining relative clause: it describes Harry’s feelings, but it does not provide fundamental info about the NG Harry. Therefore, it also functions as an instance of Hypotactic Elaboration. TIP: Non-defining relative clauses are usually preceded by a comma, or inserted into commas (as in the example above). Extension: in extension, one clause extends the meaning of another by adding something new. What is added may be just an addition, or else a replacement, or an alternative. Extension and Taxis:  Paratactic Extension: the extending clause may be introduced by ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘(either…) or’, ‘(neither…) nor’, etc. «The Dursleys had a small son called Dudley and in their opinion there was no finer boy anywhere». «The Dursleys had everything they wanted, but they also had a secret»;  Hypotactic Extension: the extending clause in this case may be introduced by ‘while’ (with additive or adversative meaning, i.e. NOT the temporal ‘while’), ‘whereas’, ‘instead of’, ‘rather than’, ‘except that/ for’, etc. «Alice was surprised to find quite a large crowd collected round the Cheshire Cat: there was a dispute going on between the executioner, the King, and the Queen, who were all talking at once, while all the rest were quite silent, and looked very uncomfortable». Notice that, in this example, the hypotactic extension introduced by ‘while’ is followed by another extending clause, this time paratactic, introduced by ‘and’. mood type in English (declarative, interrogative, exclamative, imperative), interpersonally signaling the kind of exchange that is taking place. The mood block signals the mood of the sentence: declarative, interrogative, exclamative and imperative. The element are:  Subject: in structural and formal grammar the doer of the action, the element having number / person agreement with the verb. In functional grammar the doer of the action is the actor, senser, sayer, behaver, … (experiential / transitivity). The Subject (also called ‘Grammatical’ Subject) is the element having number / person agreement with the verb. It is an interpersonal function. In fact, there’s more to this notion in FG. Identifying the FG subject is easy: it is usually the same as the subject in structural / formal grammar. You can probe it by adding a tag question to the clause (e.g. you play tennis, don’t you?, where ‘you’ is the subject). The FG Subject’s correct definition is the entity that the speaker wants to make responsible for the validity of the clause, or the entity by reference to which the clause can be affirmed or denied. “Prof Luporini wrote an essay” prof Luporini is the subject and the doer. “An essay was written by prof Luporini” an essay is the subject, prof Luporini is the doer.  Finite, which is the part of the VG that expresses tense, polarity (= positive or negative validity), and (when present) modality. The remainder of the VG is called predicator. E.g.: “The work ahead of us will be hard” in the VG ‘will be’, ‘will’ is the finite and ‘be’ is the predicator. ‘The work ahead of us’ (with an embedded PP) is the subject of the clause. Now consider a clause like “I promise you this”: here the finite is conflated with the predicator, i.e. the two functions are “fused” into the same word (‘promise’). This typically happens in simple present (except for the third person singular form, where the morpheme –s functions as finite) and simple past tense with irregular verb forms (otherwise, the morpheme –ed functions as finite). Identifying the finite: just like the subject, the finite can be probed by adding a tag question. The tag question picks up the finite, together with the subject, changing the polarity (e.g. The work ahead of us will be hard, won’t it? “Will” gives tense to the phrase).  Modal adjuncts (aggiunte modali) typically take the form of AG or multi-word expressions, such as unfortunately, always, frankly, to be honest, never, maybe, possibly, etc. These are adjuncts that either express the speaker’s comment on the clause as a whole (unfortunately, frankly, to be honest) or express temporal or modal meanings proper (always, never, maybe). The Residue is the part of the clause that is left after the mood block has been identified. Within the residue, we may find the following functions:  Predicator = the VG minus the Finite. “The work ahead of us will be hard”;  Complement = it is a NG that has the potential to be the Subject but is not – or, more generally, any NG not functioning as Subject in the clause (see Note). “I promise you this (‘this’ = a NG having the potential to be the subject, but that was not chosen as subject – the subject is ‘I’). “The work ahead of us will be hard” (‘hard’ = a NG that is not functioning as subject: having an adjective as its head / thing, this would not be possible),  Circumstantial Adjunct = corresponding to the Circumstances of Transitivity, this function is taken on by elements that provide circumstantial information. “We have all learned a lot in the last two weeks!”. Subject followed by finite = indicative declarative mood Declarative clauses are typically used to make statements, to give information. For instance, nowadays politicians and leaders typically use them to make official declarations through their social media accounts. In the Tweet above, Biden uses declarative clauses to express his gratitude to all Americans and share his intentions and promises as the newly elected President with them. Exemple: “I will be a president for all americans” Mood: subject ^ finite ^ predicator ^ complement ^ circumstantial adjunct; Transitivity: carrier ^ relational process ^ attribute ^ circumstance. Exemple 2: “You voted for me” Mood: subject ^ finite ^ circumstantial adjunct. (Declarative clauses can be used to subtly convey information, to give information that is essential for the reader to fully appreciate the following exclamation, also providing ‘evidence’ for it). Finite followed by subject (typically, in w question the w word is the subject) = indicative interrogative mood Interrogative clauses are typically used to demand information, though sometimes they may actually function as rhetorical questions in context. In the Tweet above, Trump’s question probably does not expect a ‘real’ answer from the reader. He uses this interrogative clause to catch the reader’s attention and to provocatively accuse some media outlets of being biased (look at the lexical choice Lamestream Media, instead of ‘mainstream media’). Exemple: “Since when does the Lamestream Media call who our next president will be?” (It’s not a real question, he already knows the answer, is rhetorical question) Mood: does finite, call predicator, the lamestream media subject Subject followed by finite, but clause introduced by an exclamative wh- word = indicative exclamative mood Exclamative clauses are typically used to introduce exclamations, thus giving special ‘emphasis’ to an assertion, as in the Tweet above, where Trump underlines with an exclamative clause one of his recurring claims about the 2020 Presidential elections. Exemple: what a total mess this “election” has been! No mood block = imperative mood, standard form. The Subject is not expressed: it is by definition ‘you’. Tense is not expressed either: it can only be ‘now’. ‘Keep’ in the example above is the Predicator. Subject is implicit, the finite element is implicit too, they are not required. In the Imperative Mood, there can be no conflation between Finite and Predicator. Imperative clauses are typically used to give commands, orders. Due to their exhortative or persuasive function, they are typically used in slogans (including electoral/political slogans, as in the Tweet above), advertising, some forms of parent-child interaction etc. Exemple: keep the faith! To conclude: a new line of meanings / functions in the clause Exemple: “The work [ahead of us] will be hard” The work [ahead of us] will be hard Transitivity Carrier - Relational process Attribute Mood Subject Finite Predicator Complement Mood block Residue Stop & Check your progress: Unit 5 Please read the text below (from the June 2019 issue of the UK monthly magazine Good Housekeeping) and answer the questions that follow, which are related to interpersonal meanings. The hidden risks of the air we breathe. Indoor and outdoor air pollution is a growing threat to our health. Though we can’t avoid it, there are things we can do to help look after our lungs. Do you hold your breath when crossing a busy road to avoid inhaling exhaust fumes? Surprisingly, drivers aren’t safer than pedestrians and cyclists, and actually breath in more polluted air. “Indoor pollution levels can sometimes be worse than those outside”, says Dr Nick Hopkinson, medical director of the British Lung Foundation. There are many types of pollutants, but it’s particulate matters (PM) that cause the most concern these days. These very fine particles, whose diameter is 30 times smaller than that of human hair, can pass into the bloodstream after being breathed in, and researchers believe that they can even enter the brain. 1. In the clause Though we can’t avoid it, which constituent is functioning as the Finite? A. Though                                                      B. can’t C. avoid                                                          D. can’t avoid A  B  C  D 2. What Mood type is instantiated in/by the clause Do you hold your breath, as also clearly shown by the order of Finite and Subject in its Mood Block? Please write your answer in the space below: Indicative interrogative………….. 3. What is the interpersonal function of Surprisingly in Surprisingly, drivers aren’t safer than pedestrians and cyclists?  A. Modal Adjunct                                           B. Complement C. Predicator                                                  D. Circumstantial Adjunct A  B  C  D 4. Therefore, on the basis of your answer to question (3) above, say if this statement is true or false: Surprisingly forms part of the Residue of that clause. TRUE FALSE 5. What is the interpersonal function of safer in Surprisingly, drivers aren’t safer than pedestrians and cyclists?  A. Modal Adjunct                                           B. Complement C. Predicator                                                  D. Circumstantial Adjunct A  B  C  D 6. Identify the Mood Block in Indoor pollution levels can sometimes be worse than those outside. A. Indoor pollution levels                            B. Indoor pollution levels can C. Indoor pollution levels can sometimes     D. be worse than those outside A  B  C  D 7. The interpersonal function Complement, by definition, can only be taken on by: A. Nominal Groups (NGs)                             B. Verbal Groups (VGs) C. Adverbial Groups (AGs)                           D. Prepositional Phrases (PPs) A  B  C  D 8. Say if the following statement is true or false. Consider the clause complex and researchers believe that they can even enter the brain. In the clause and researchers believe, there is conflation between Finite and Predicator. TRUE FALSE 9. Fill in the blank with the missing word: When we analyse interpersonal meanings in FG, we are taking a specific perspective on the clause, i.e. we are considering the clause as a(n) exchage. Unit 6: TEXTUAL MEANINGS (MODE - Structural cohesion, Theme in clauses) Textual meanings: Mode, impact the clause as message. (What is the role of the sentence) Structural cohesion: theme & rheme Field What’s going on? Clause as representation Systems: transitivity, clauses in combination Tenor Who is taking part? Clause as exchange Systems: mood, modality, appraisal Mode What’s the role of language? Clause as message Systems: structural cohesion, non- structural cohesion Clause as representation Ideational metafunction (language functions to represent extra- linguistic “reality”). Divided into: Experiential - Transitivity Logical - Clauses in combination  When the TT is preceded by other elements having a different function (interpersonal or textual), these too become thematic. We call them Interpersonal and Textual Themes; Remember: interpersonal and textual themes are optional elements (sometimes you find them, sometimes you don’t). Only the TT is obligatory. Interpersonal theme may be realized by:  Modal adjuncts (e.g. probably, certainly, surprisingly, seriously, to be fair);  In a polar interrogative, the finite element (coming at the beginning, before the TT) functions as interpersonal theme;  In a wh- interrogative, the wh- element is both (= at the same time) TT (because it is an element of the transitivity structure) and interpersonal Theme (because it signals the kind of exchange that is taking place: typically a question). Modal Adjuncts Type Meaning Examples Probability How like? Probability, possibility, certainly, perhaps, maybe Usuality How often? Usually, sometimes, always, (n)ever, often, seldom Typicality How typical? Occasionally, generally, regularly, for the most part Obviousness How obvious? Of course, surely, obviously, clearly Opinion I think In my opinion, personally, to my mind Admission I admit Frankly, to be honest, to tell you the truth Persuasion I assure you Honestly, really, believe me, seriously Entreaty I request you Please, kindly Presumption I presume Evidently, apparently, no doubt, presumably Desirability How desirable? (Un)fortunately, to my delight / distress, regrettably, hopefully Reservation How reliable? At first, tentatively, provisionally, looking back on it Validation How valid? Broadly speaking, in general, on the whole, strictly speaking Evaluation How sensible? (Un)wisely, understandably, mistakenly, foolishly Prediction How expected? To my surprise, surprisingly, as expected, by chance Textual theme may be realized by:  Conjunctions (e.g. because, until, while, they stay at the beginning of the clause) and other connectors used to relate a clause to the previous text, more specifically called conjunctive adjuncts (e.g. in other words, moreover, on the other hand, they haven’t to stay at the beginning, they are more flexible);  Continuatives (e.g. well, ehm, so, oh now, yes, no...). A continuative is ‘one of a small set of words which signal a move in the discourse: a response, in dialogue, or a new move to the next point if the same speaker is continuing. Conjunctive Adjuncts Type Meaning Exemples Appositive i.e., e.g. That is, in other words, for instance Corrective Rather Or rather, at least, to be precise Dismissive In any case In any case, anyway, leaving that aside Summative In short Briefly, to sum up, in conclusion Verificative Actually Actually, in fact, as a matter of fact Additive And Also, moreover, in addition, besides Adversative But On the other hand, however, conversely Variative Instead Instead, alternatively Temporal Then Meanwhile, before that, later on, next, soon, finally Comparative Likewise Likewise, in the same way Causal So Therefore, for this reason, as a result, with this in mind Conditional (If…) then In that case, under the circumstances, otherwise Concessive Yet Nevertheless, despite that Respective As to that In this respect, as far as that’s concerned Example: Well, but in any case, honestly, wouldn’t the best idea be a party? Well, but in any case, honestly wouldn’t the best idea be a party? Continuativ e Conjunction Conjunctive adjunct Modal adjunct Finite Participant Textual themes Interpersonal themes TT Rheme Unit 8: TEXTUAL MEANINGS (MODE – Structural cohesion, Special thematic structures) Special thematic structures are ways in which the speaker can manipulate the structure of her message in order to establish specific kinds of starting points, e.g. “What I need is a good sleep”, or “It’s a good sleep I need”, which can be used for emphasis in place of “I need a good sleep”. Emphasize something. There are 3 types of special thematic structures:  Thematic equative;  Predicated Theme;  Thematized comment. Thematic equative: this special thematic structure consists of two elements linked by an identifying relational process. In fact, clauses of this kind set up a particular relation between theme and rheme, namely that theme = rheme (the theme equates the rheme): Exemple: What you see is what you get (“is” identifying relational process). Note that the basic principle to identify the TT holds for thematic equatives as well: for instance, “What you see” is a participant (identified). It is also an embedded clause, whose function corresponds to that of a NG. Exepmle: What I love about school, by British poet Roger McGough What I love about school is the hurly-burly of the classroom, the sly humor of the teachers What I hate about teachers is their reluctance to cartwheel down corridors What I love about corridors is that the longer they are the louder the echo What I hate about echo echo is its refusal to answer a straight question question What I love about question is the proud admission of its own ignorance Predicated theme: this special thematic structure is a so-called “it-clause” (also called “cleft construction”). It is introduced by the pronoun “it” followed by the verb to be and then by an element (often a NG) that is thus given special emphasis. The Theme is it + verb be + following element: “It is our choices that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities”. “It was on the corner [of the street] that he noticed the first sign [of something peculiar]. His teacher persuaded him to continue —> It was his teacher who persuaded him to continue (predicated theme). Contrastive meaning = his teacher and not someone else Thematized comment: this special thematic structure takes the form of an “it-clause” too, but with a different function: rather than singling out an element, the it-clause expresses the speaker’s/ writer’s opinion, assessment, evaluation, about what follows (e.g., it is true, it is obvious, it is surprising, it may be…): It may be that you are not yourself luminous, but you are a conductor of light. Note that the second clause is not a special thematic structure, but an unmarked declarative with “but you” as theme: but textual + you topical. Unit 9: TEXTUAL MEANINGS (MODE - Non-structural cohesion) What is the meaning of ‘cohesion’? The act or fact of forming a united ‘whole’. A fundamental property of texts. Different parts are linked and form an united whole. Cohesion is divided in:  Structural Cohesion: Theme/ Rheme  Non-structural Cohesion :  Reference (grammatical device);  Substitution (grammatical device);  Ellipsis (grammmatical device);  Conjunction (grammatical device);  Lexical relations (lexical device). All these devices, tools, resources, contribute to the continuity of the text. All contribute to its being a text, rather than a random / meaningless combination of clauses. Grammatical words: meaning corresponds to grammatical functions (possessives, prepositions, pronouns, …). Lexical words: having lexical content (nouns, adjectives, adverbs,…). They can be allarged, enriched and can include new words. In order for a sequence of clauses or clause complexes to constitute a text, it is necessary to also make explicit the external relationships between one clause (or clause complex) and another. Different clause or sentences having relation between them. The effect of cohesion is coherence, or a coherent text. One fundamental property of a text. Non-structural cohesion gives a sense of continuity, of unity, to what we call a ‘text’. Reference is something that can be find in many part of the text or outside the text:  Endophoric Reference points inwards (i.e. in the text). It is typically realized by personal pronouns and demonstratives. Divided in:  Anaphoric Reference points to the preceding text, e.g.: “A man was walking through the forest. As he came to a thicket, he heard the faint rustling of leaves” he makes reference to something that we find before in the text;  Cataphoric Reference points to the following text, e.g.: “The man had not gone far when… it came. An arrow pierced his chest” it comes before;  Exophoric Reference points outwards (i.e. ‘outside’ the text). Outside the text we can find the context. Two types linked to the two types of context of FG (culture, situation):  Homophoric Reference points to only one possible referent in the shared Context of Culture, e.g.: “the White House, the Prime Minister, the Earth…” words that share? the context of culture, referring to the USA (you find all lexical words);  Deixis points to the Context of Situation, here and now, e.g.: “What’s this?” [Speaker pointing at a packet on the table]. What kind of reference? 1. Washington — President Trump retreated sunday from his desire to relax coronavirus guidelines by Easter, announcing instead that all americans must continue to avoid nonessential travel, going to work, eating at bars and restaurants, or gathering in groups of more than 10 for at least another month and perhaps until june. The grim recommendation, which the president made in the White House Rose Garden, came just a day before the end of a two-week period in which the world’s largest economy has largely shut down with staggering consequences: businesses shuttered, schools and colleges emptied, and social life all but suspended. They are exophoric. They point to the context of culture, so are homophoric references. 2. Once upon a time there was a dear little girl who was loved by everyone who looked at her, but most of all by her grandmother, and there was nothing that she would not have given to the