Understanding Phrases and Clauses: Meaning, Functions, and Types, Appunti di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Understanding Phrases and Clauses: Meaning, Functions, and Types e più Appunti in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! Phrases and syntax Syntax studies the way in which words can be combined: the form, positioning and grouping of the elements that are used to make up. What is a phrase phrase (countable) SYNTAX ‣ A group of words that together have a particular meaning, especially when they express the meaning well in a few words: - She used the phrase 'survival of the fittest’; - I Edward Heath's famous phrase, 'the unacceptable face of capitalism’. ‣ A group of words without a subject and a predicate which is characterized by a unity of meaning and is used to form a clause or a sentence. Phrase (Sintagma) ≠ sentence Catchphrase →modi di dire. Phrase, clause, sentence ‣ Phrase → a group of words without a subject and a predicate which is characterized by a unity of meaning and is used to form a clause or a sentence; ‣ Clause → a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, but which is usually of a sentence part; ‣ Sentence (word group) noun [C] → a group of words, usually containing a verb, which expresses a thought in the form of a statement, question, instruction or exclamation and starts with a capital letter when written. The metaphor of Chinese boxes (embedding): ‣ Sentence → [The man was wet] [because he had fallen in the river]; ‣ Clause →[(the man) (had fallen) (in the river)]; ‣ Phrase → : (in the river) Phrases, clauses, sentences are groups of words, but: • Phrases don't have a subject and a predicate and are found inside clauses; • Clauses have a subject and a predicate and are found inside sentences; • Sentences are made of one or more clauses and are found inside texts. Phrase It is not a sentence because it is not a complete idea with a subject and a predicate. The most important part of the noun phrase is the headword (or head), which is generally a noun, but sometimes a pronoun. ✴ The head of a noun phrase can be pre-modified by determiners, numerals, adjectives, or other nouns. ✴ Pre-modifiers can be epithets or classifiers. ✴ The head of a noun phrase can be post-modified by a prepositional phrase or by a clause. - These three young boys with big black hats; - The old one; - My old aunt from Liverpool; - Your extremely interesting art book on Caravaggio. Clauses as post-modifiers Clauses can be used to modify the headword of a noun phrase. ‣ Relative clauses - The woman who lives next door to your mum; - The village where I was born; - The guy whose dog won the first prize at the beauty contest. ‣ Non-finite clauses → verbi che non si riferiscono ad una persona come i participi. - The choir singing the national anthem; - The vaccine discovered in the US by an Italian scientist; - The cheapest to go on holiday. Embedding phrases The process of placing a phrase within another phrase is called embedding. Embedded phrases are linked by a relationship of dependency. - [The grey house with the red roof]NP; - [The (grey )ADJP house (with the red roof)PP]NP BUT… - [with PREP (the red roof)NP]PP BUT… - [the (red)AdjP roof]NP Main phrases vs. embedded phrases Main phrases are "'independent". For example most of the times you can move them inside the sentence. Embedded phrases depend on other phrases, they modify the head. - The grey house with the red roof was destroyed by the fire - [The grey house with the red roof)NP [was destroyed] VP [by the fire] PP. - [The grey house with the red roof]NP → main phrase; - [The (grey )ADJP house (with the red roof)PP]NP → embedded phrase. Embedding post-modifiers The process of embedding allows us to make use of a finite number of elements to create an infinite number of expressions. Through embedding we can construct an infinitely long structure. This is exploited for example in nursery rhymes (cf. Register): The House That Jack Built This is the house that Jack built. This is the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the rat that ate the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the cat that killed the rat that ate the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built. […] This is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built. This is the cow with the crumpled horn that tossed the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the cheese that lay in the house that Jack built. The importance of understanding phrases and words: Structural ambiguity? Playing with NPs? ‣ Enraged Cow Injures Farmer with Ax → (Is the Prepositional Phrase 'with ax' independent or embedded?) 1. [Enraged Cow] [Injures] [Farmer] [with Ax) = independent; 2. [Enraged Cow] [Injures] [Farmer with Ax] = embedded. ‣ Hospitals are Sued by Seven Foot Doctors → (what does seven modify?) 1. [Hospitals] [are Sued] by Seven [Foot Doctors] (= doctors specialized in foot diseases, podiatrists); 2. Hospitals are Sued by [Seven Foot] (= 2 meters) Doctors. ‣ Visiting aunts can be very boring! → (ls 'visiting' independent or embedded?) 1. [Visiting] [aunts] [can be] [very boring] → independent; 2. [Visiting aunts] [can be] [very boring] → embedded. ➡ VERB PHRASE The syntax of verb phrases • The headword of a verb phrase is a lexical verb. • Like in noun phrases, the head of a verb phrase can be pre-modified and post-modified. • Pre-modifiers are mainly auxiliary verbs, but some types of adverbs are also possible. • Post-modifiers are generally adverbs. • A verb phrase can be followed by a noun phrase or by a prepositional phrase. (cf. transitive verbs, intransitive verbs, and ditransitive verbs). - My daughter studies Chinese; - My daughter has been studying Chinese for ten years; - My daughter should have studied Chinese; - The DNA was discovered by Watson and Crick in 1953; - Tom and his family have never been to Brazil; - She rarely goes to the cinema alone; - The President was speaking very slowly; - I sent Mary a long letter of complaint. Case study: Verb phrases in news English Consider the following headlines and newspaper articles and look at the VPs in them: - Twelve (were) killed in protests across Afghanistan; - Fanzine (is) cleared over racism claims; - Heathrow service drivers (are) to strike; - Obama (is) to hold first news conference of the year; - Dozens (were) arrested (while they were) protesting against California education cuts; - Palin before resignation (says): I can't take it anymore. ➡ ADJECTIVE PHRASE In an adjective phrase (AP), the head word is an adjective: - Susan is [AP clever]; - The doctor is [AP very late]; Prepositional phrases are made of a preposition followed by a noun phrase. We don't have a head word as such, since prepositions are not considered head words. !!!! NO HEAD !!!! - [PP through the window]; - [PP over the bar]; - [PP across the line]; - [PP after midnight]; - after a very long walk; - behind the old building; - for all the hungry children. This makes prepositional phrases easy to recognize. Only rarely are prepositional phrases pre- modified by an adverb: - [PP straight through the window]; - [PP right over the bar]; - [PP just after midnight]. DEFINING THE CLAUSE Clause (CI) → technical a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, but which is usually only part of a sentence. Clauses are the main structures used to compose sentences. A sentence will be made up of at least one main clause (a clause that makes sense on its own and that is not dependent on or part of another clause); A clause can function as a sentence by itself or as part of a sentence. A sentence may also contain one or more subordinate clauses (a clause that cannot stand on its own and that is Dependent on the main clause). The structure of clauses Clauses are made of phrases, which occupy different positions and serve different functions. We have a distinction between FORM (type of phrase) and FUNCTION (role of the phrase in the clause). Five possible functions of phrases: 1. Subject; 2. Verb; 3. Object: •direct object; •indirect object. 4. Complement: •subject complement; •object complement; •adjunct. ➡ SUBJECT → (or AGENT/ACTOR or PATIENT): Function generally served by a noun phrase. It normally precedes the verb in a clause. It is linked to the verb by “agreement". It is generally the agent, the actor of the verb (in active constructions) but can only be the patient of the action in the case of passive constructions. Examples: - The mouse runs up the clock; - The mice run up the clock; - The house was destroyed by a fire. But: - To fly on a hot-air balloon is the best experience one can have (subject = nominal clause); - In the wardrobe is where I put my clothes (subject = prepositional phrase; cleft sentence). ➡ VERB This function is always performed by a verb phrase. It is normally preceded by a subject, but not necessarily (imperatives, Get out!). It is the fundamental part of the clause, though we also have instances of verbless clauses (the so- called minor clauses → Fire!, Bye bye, Hey John!; or elliptical clauses). Verbs agree with the subject in number. Examples: A: Where are you going on holiday next summer? B: To Australia (elliptical clause). A: I should leave now; it's getting late B: Bye bye, Terry (minor clause). ➡ OBJECT ‣ Direct object (or PATIENT) Generally performed by a noun phrase positioned after the predicator. It is the entity or object to which the action is done (patient). Example → Brenda is expecting a big surprise But: I told him to come to the party (nominal clause) ‣ Indirect object (or RECIPIENT/BENEFICIARY) Performed by a noun phrase or by a prepositional phrase, it is positioned after the predicator. It describes the beneficiary of an action. Examples: - James gave his wife a bunch of flowers; - James gave a bunch of flower to his wife. ➡ COMPLEMENT → (or PREDICATIVE) The complement function can be performed by a noun phrase or by an adjective phrase, and it is a strategy used to give extra information on the subject (Subject complement) or the object (Object complement). Complements generally comes after the verb to be, copular verbs, and similar. Examples: - Paul has become a qualified engineer - Roger seems quite amusing - I find your novel particularly boring - You look gorgeous in this new dress! ➡ ADJUNCT Adjuncts are often optional elements in clauses and may be freely added to provide circumstantial information about time, place, manner, cause, etc. The adjunct function is generally served by adverb phrases, prepositional phrases and noun phrases. Some verbs require an obligatory adjunct. Examples: - Laura walked there very quickly - She runs to the playground after lunch - Linda walked ten miles this afternoon - The butler placed the teapot in the cabinet - I treated her very badly - The pleasant summer lasted till the end of the month Word order On the basis of the functions served by phrases, seven basic structure types can be identified (note: word order here refers to declarative clauses): 1. SV (John laughed); 2. SVO (My father plays chess); 3. SVC (Jane is a beautiful girl); 4. SVA (An old man lives there); 5. SVOO (Jim bought Mary some chocolate); 6. SVOA (The waiter has put the soup on the table); 7. SVOC (We find Aunt Emma very amusing). You can combine phrase analysis and the analysis of the constituents of a clause are two overlapping layers! The waiter has put the soup on the table ‣ Analysis of clause constituents: [The waiter]SUBJ [has put]PRED. [the soup]DO [on the table]ADJUNCT. ‣ Phrase analysis: [The waiter]NP [has put]VP [the soup]NP [on the table]PP Types of clauses ‣ Minor clauses → do NOT have a predicator, but still are considered independent meaningful units because they perform or result in an action. They include calls/summonses (Peter!, Mum?), alarms (Fire!), greetings (Hi!, Good morning!), exclamations (Gash! Congratulations! Thanks), self-identification (Mary here), idiomatic expressions (Like father, like son; so far so good). A: Tom is always late for the Christmas party! So annoying! B: Like father, like son A: Mum? B: Yes? What do you want, Mary? A: Hi there! ➡ RELATIVE CLAUSES A relative clause adds information about one of the nouns in the main clause. The beginning of a relative clause is usually marked by a relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose, whom). ‣ Defining relative clauses: They are post-modifiers of a noun and help to identify a specific object or person. They are always embedded in the noun phrase. - The boy who is sitting there is my brother; - The guy whose father works in Rome called me yesterday; - Give me the letter that lies on the floor; - The boy whom we met yesterday is my brother. Among defining relative clauses we also include non-finite clauses serving as post-modifiers of noun phrases. These clauses are also called participial clauses (ex. 1 and 2) and infinitive clauses (ex. 3). Such clauses can be traced back to complete relative clauses (either in the active or in the passive voice). 1. We are listening to a choir (that is) singing the national anthem; 2. The vaccine (that was) discovered by the Italian scientist will prevent the spread of the disease; 3. Yuri Gagarin was the first man to go into space. Other examples of defining relative clauses (introduced by relative adverbs, where, when, why) - This is the house where I was born; - The time when we used to play in the garden is over; - I don't understand the reason why he hasn't called yet. ‣ Non-defining relative clauses = They add extra information which is not necessary to identify the person or the object. They are never embedded in the noun phrase (THEY ARE NOT POST- MODIFIERS). - Oranges, which are very healthy, grow well in Sicily; - Yesterday I saw your mum, who was shopping at Tesco’s. ➡ ADVERBIAL CLAUSES Adverbial clauses function like adverb phrases and prepositional phrases, giving circumstantial information about an action or event (encoded in the main clause). They are introduced by a subordinate conjunction. 1. Temporal clauses: when, while, once, as soon as… - The postman arrived while I was having dinner with my parents; - As soon as you arrive, give me a call. 2. Causal (or reason) clauses: since, because, as, given that, for… - We can't buy a new house because we don't have enough money; MAIN CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE - Since I arrived late, I wasn't allowed to enter the institution. 3. Concessive (or contrast) clauses: although; even though; while, whereas, whilst… - My son studies Medicine, while my daughter studies Art; - Even though the project sounds promising, it still has some weak points; - John won the race, although he was young and unexperienced. 4. Conditional clauses: if, unless, as long as, on the condition that… - We won't allow him to sit the exam, unless he has a plausible justification; - If it rains tomorrow, we won't go out for a picnic; - A widow has left money to an animal charity on the condition that her cats are looked after for the rest of their lives. 5. Purpose clauses: so…that, to, in order to, so as to… - They bought on alarm, so that they can feel safe when thev're not at home; - He will study in Australia for nine more months in order to perfect his English. 6. Result clauses: so..that, so…. as to… - The picture was so old that nobody could recognize her; - It was so dark as to make it impossible to see her face. 7. Comparative (or comparison) clauses: as…. as, than… - You're taller than I am; - I’ll try to run as fast as I can. 8. Degree clauses: insofar as, inasmuch as, so far as… - We agree only insofar as the budget is concerned; - Recession will last at least 5 years, inasmuch as we can predict. A note on adverbial clauses The examples we saw so far use finite verb forms. However, adverbial clauses can be constructed using non-finite forms, such as present and past participles. We can call these clauses participle clauses (see also slide on relative clauses). MAIN CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE Purpose clauses can be realized through infinitive clauses: - I spent a month in Australia to improve my English (purpose cl.).