Understanding Metaphors, English Language Features, and Non-Verbal Communication - Prof. M, Appunti di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Understanding Metaphors, English Language Features, and Non-Verbal Communication - Prof. M e più Appunti in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! English for communication studies English For Communication Studies (Università degli Studi di Pavia) lOMoARcPSD|10616302 1 ENGLISH FOR COMMUNICATION STUDIES – PROF. McINTIRE INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH FOR COMMUNICATION What is communication? Communication can be defined as the process of passing information from one person to another using a medium Why does communication matter? Tony Robbins says that the way we communicate with others and with ourselves ultimately determines the quality of our lives. Effective communication vs. bad communication can affect personal relationships, politics, economy, businesses, university or job applications and interviews and promoting intercultural understanding. The first step to create an effective and strategic communication is to answer these three questions: 1. WHAT do you want to say? 2. WHO do you want to say it to? 3. HOW do you want to say it? It is also important to create a strategic communication to BE PRECISE: the more precise is the content, the more effective is the communication. Example Communication: “I want a sweater” Effective communication: “I want a medium sized red sweater” Why English? English is the current LINGUA FRANCA. A lingua franca can be defined as a bridge language used to facilitate communication between people who do not share a native language. Internal Lingua Francas The creation of national languages was a method of managing the linguistic diversity within borders (dialects and distinct languages). It fulfilled the need for people to be able to communicate within borders. Transnational Lingua Francas Even with standardized languages, a new problem came about: a need to communicate between countries. - SABIR: oldest documented pidgin language and was based on romance languages. It was used for trade between Europeans, the Turkish, Arabs and others in Levant. - LATIN: it was used as a transnational language, however, quickly declined in influence as it was unsuitable to handle international transaction and new fields of knowledge. Auxiliary language Artificial languages are invented to serve as universal language that wouldn’t privilege any one country. These languages are not invented to replace national languages and should not be used as vehicle of cultural values (e.g. literature). The problem was that too many auxiliary languages were invented and were therefore in competition with each other. The other problem is that these languages were unstable and in need of constant change. Basic English lOMoARcPSD|10616302 4 There are three meta-functions through which we create meanings and through we organized grammar: 1. Ideational • Grammar is related to the concept “FIELD” that concern experiences and the representation • Speakers make meanings about the world and about their world experiences 2. Interpersonal • Grammar is related to the concept “TENOR” that concern the social distance, the status …) • Speakers are always talking with someone else (dialogue, exchange) • Textual • Grammar is related to the concept “MODE” that concern the organization of the text and its qualities (= tone, spontaneity …) • This function investigates how the message is arranged and the message itself Those meta-functions correspond to three different level: 1. WHAT we want to say 2. WHO we want to say it to 3. HOW we want to say it (spoken or written / formal or informal / texting or mailing …) Register Michael Halliday considers register as “the linguistic features which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features, with particular values of the field, tenor and mode”. FIELD Includes those subjects matters: • What • Where • When • Why something is happening … TENOR • Investigates the social relationships between the interactants. • Influences some choices in the linguistic system • Helps to be suited for every linguistic exchanged MODE It’s the channel of the communication that can be, for example, written or spoken. It can be: • A presentation • An e-mail • A message • A speech • … J.L AUSTIN – Speech act theory A Speech act is an utterance that has a performative function in communication A speech act is divided in: • Locutionary act à what is said • Illocutionary act à what is meant • Perlocutionary act à the effect that the message produce A speech act can be: • Expressive à express speaker’s feelings lOMoARcPSD|10616302 5 • Representative à states what speaker believes to be true • Commissive à speaker commits itself to a future action (through, for example, a promise) • Directive à speaker gets someone to do something • Phatic à it’s used to establish a rapport • Declarative à it changes the state of affairs in the world (like, for example, the act of baptism) COMMUNICATION THEORY S.F Scudder He proposed the communication theory in 1890. This theory says that all living beings communicate, even if the way of communicating is different. Communication is a need for survival and can be: • Mechanistic = simple transmission of information from one person, called sender, to another, called receiver. • Psychological = transmission of feelings and thoughts (first the ones of the sender and then, after decoding, also the ones of the receiver) • Social = in this case is the result of an interaction between sender and receiver • Systemic = communication vehicle a message that can be different and various considering the individuals interpretations of the receivers • Critical = it’s a way to express our individual power and authority among other individuals Basic elements of communication 1. SOURCE = it produces a message or a sequence of messages 2. SENDER = operates on the message in order to produce a signal: message => signal Aristotle calls this figure “SPEAKER” 3. CHANNEL = it’s the medium used to transmit the signal 4. RECEIVER = this figure uses the inverse operation used previously by the sender: signal => message 5. DESTINATION = it’s the person or the thing who is referred the message 6. MESSAGE = the information, statement It can be transmitted in different ways: - Verbal - Written - Visual - … 7. FEEDBACK = it’s the response of the receiver to the sender’s message The feedback can be used to ask some more information or to clarify some points of the message It’s very important to ensure the message was received It can be: - Oral - Non- verbal (ex: smile) - Written - Audience’s response lOMoARcPSD|10616302 6 Aristotle’s model of communication SPEAKER à MESSAGE à LISTENER Modes of persuasion: • Ethos = ethical credibility • Pathos = appealing to the emotions of the audience • Logos = appeal to the logic and reason Harold Lassweld Communication’s modality: 1. WHO = speaker 2. WHAT = message produced by the speaker 3. HOW = channel, way in which the message produced by the speaker is passed to someone 4. TO WHOM = audience who received the message produced by the speaker 5. EFFECT = every message produces some effects in the audience SHANNON-WEAVER - mathematical model Communication’s modality: • The sender transmits a message using the operation of “encoding” à he’s called encoder • The message is transmitted using the channel. The channel can be disturbed. In that case the information may not arrive correctly to the receiver à channel noise. • The message arrives to the receiver who use the operation of “decoding” à he’s called decoder. He also gives back to the sender a feedback. A communication can be: • ENTROPIC = when a communication is rich of new information and highly unpredictable • REDUNDANCY = when a communication is poor of new information and highly predictable Wilbur Schramm Schramm’s model: The communication takes place in the “field of experience” and is divided in some points: • The sender encodes a message • The receiver decodes and interprets the message • The receiver becomes the new sender and encodes a feedback • The sender becomes the new receiver and interprets and decodes the feedback Considerations: • Communication is a two-ways street that involves two persons: the sender and the receiver • Schramm believed that the process cannot be declared complete without the feedback • There must be commonality in the sender’s and in the receiver’s filed of experience otherwise the conversation cannot take place David Berlo’s SMCR model lOMoARcPSD|10616302 9 1. Communication starts from receiving message instead of sending them 2. After receiving messages (= information) from different sources those information are combined to create a new message 3. The new message passes through a gatekeeping 4. The message reaches the audience 5. Audience sends a feedback to the sender. The feedback can be sent in two ways: - Directly and quickly in interpersonal communication - Indirectly and slower in mass communication lOMoARcPSD|10616302 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1 1. Present simple Used to express the habits of your current life (even if you’re not doing them at the moment). Adverbs: - Often - Sometimes - Always - Never - Usually - Normally - Rarely - Every The verbs change only in the third person (he/she/it) à +S I eat You eat He eats Question = Do you eat? Negation = No, I don’t eat 2. “ING” VS “TO” Present continuous = what I’m doing now, even if is not my habit. (ING) I’m speaking English Weather = when we talk about the weather, we are most often talking about what is happening now, so we use the present continuous. (ING) It is raining N.B: if you speak about usual seasonal weather patterns, you would use present simple à It usually snowS in the winter Feelings = ING I love cooking Change of activity status = ING BEFORE/AFTER STUDYING START/BEGIN STUDYING FINISH/STOP STUDYING QUIT SMOKING GETTING After prepositions = ING I look forward TO seeing you. How ABOUT going for an aperitivo? Are you interested IN learning English? I’m good AT playing tennis, but I’m bad AT cooking He is afraid OF flying With the verb “Continue” = “continue” requires the continuous (ING) We continued studying lOMoARcPSD|10616302 11 Verb + ING form = some verbs are followed by the ing form if the next word is a verb. - enjoy - feel like - finish - (don’t) mind - imagine - can’t stand - admit - give up - avoid - deny Verb + Infinitive = some verbs are followed by the infinitive if the next word is a verb. - decide - hope - manage - want - forget - refuse - seem - expect - promise - appear - mean - offer Verb + ing form or infinitive = some verbs can be followed by the ing form and the infinitive and the meaning is very similar. es: like, love, prefer. But with some verbs there is a difference in meaning: I remembered to buy my grandmother a birthday card (à I didn’t forget to buy one) I remembered making cards for her when I was small (à it’s one of my memories from the past) Verb + infinitive without to = two common verbs are followed by an object + infinitive without ‘to’ à “make someone doing something” and “let someone doing something” My parents make me do my homework every night. 3. The verb GET Get is an informal word and is very common in spoken English. It has many meanings. - RECEIVE = you get a certificate at the end of the course - FIND/BUY = where did you get these shoes? / she’s trying to get a new job - BECOME = my hands are getting cold - ARRIVE/REACH = I’ll phone when I get home - FETCH = Wait here while I get the car Get + past participle = we use this structure in particular expressions. It is more natural than just using the verb. - get married - get divorced lOMoARcPSD|10616302 14 Things we make: - a mistake - a meal - money - friends - a decision - a noise - progress - a difference Things we do: - homework - housework - a subject - a course - the shopping - research - a favor - well - something/nothing/anything Things we take: - an exam - a photo - a break - a decision - a shower - a bus/a taxi/a plane ENGLISH GRAMMAR 3 1. Have to Used in the past, present and future. I have to go to the dentist I had to go to the dentist I will have to go to the dentist - Affirmative: it’s necessary - Negative: it’s not necessary 2. Must Used only in the present tense. - Affirmative: it is mandatory - Negative: it is forbidden In the affirmative, the HAVE TO and MUST forms are similar: - I HAVE TO go to the doctor’s office. (It’s necessary) - I MUST go to the doctor’s office. (It’s mandatory However, in the negative form the HAVE TO and MUST are quite different: - You MUST NOT forget to take your medicine. - You MUST NOT break the law. In the following sentence must not is unappropriated: lOMoARcPSD|10616302 15 You MUST NOT buy me a birthday present. 3. Should o Used to express what is the “morally” right or correct thing to do. The government should do more to reduce crime You look sick. You should go to bed o We also use should to express when we expect something to happen. Where is our professor? She should be here by now. She has been studying hard for the exam, so she should pass. Future, subjunctive and the hypothetica Key Difference Between the Future Forms - I’m going/I’m going to go: Used to show a future that is already organized or something that is inevitable. I am going to the theatre tonight - Will/Shall: Used to show a future that is not organized yet (even if there is already the intention to do something). Therefore, if there is “doubt,” this structure is expressed to show that. WILL (1) We use will when we decide to do something at the time of speaking (so it is not organized yet). - Offering to do something You’ve lost your wallet? Here, I’ll lend you some money. - Agreeing to do something Would you mind helping me carry this bag down the stairs? Sure, I’ll help you carry it down the stairs...no problem! - Promising to do something I promise I won’t (will not) tell anyone your secret. - Asking somebody to do something (Will you?) Will you please open the door? WILL (2) We also use will when expressing doubt or predictions. - I’ll probably go... - I think I’ll go... - I don’t think it will rain... - I’m not sure if I’ll go... - I’m sure you’ll pass the exam... - I expect she’ll phone... - I wonder if he’ll like the present... WILL NOT = WON’T Expresses that a future action will not happen or can express refusal. He will not come to class tomorrow. SHALL The first person should be involved. Shall I open the window? Shall we go? Shall we eat? lOMoARcPSD|10616302 16 Conditional We use the conditional when we imagine a situation or an action—we think of something that is not real. 1. WOULD (HAVE) 2. COULD (HAVE) 3. SHOULD (HAVE) 1. Would have When we imagine situations or actions in the past that didn’t happen. I didn’t invite them to the party. They wouldn’t have come anyway. I didn’t have her phone number. Otherwise I would have called her. 2. Could/could have o Could: used for actions that are not realistic. I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse I’m so tired, I could sleep for a week o Could have (avrei potuto): something that was possible but didn’t happen. Why didn’t you tell me you were visiting Milan? You could have stayed with me I could have got you a ticket if you had told me you wanted to go to the concert N.B = couldn’t is also used to express the past of can’t and past general ability. (ex. I could speak Chinese very well when I was a child) 3. Should have o Should have: you didn’t do it, but it would have been the right thing to do. You should have come with us. We really needed your help o Shouldn’t have: you did it, but it was the wrong thing to do. I feel sick. I shouldn’t have eaten so much Subjunctive (= statements that reflect a person’s state of mind including beliefs, intentions, wishes, opinions and purposes) - It is imperative that one (should) study hard to pass the exam. - It is critical that we (should) try to demonstrate greater compassion. - It is essential that the government (should) take care when determining fiscal policy. - It is important that we (should) help those less fortunate. Hypothetical 1. Present simple + Future (Possible) If it rains, I will not go to the park 2. Past simple + Present conditional (Impossible) If I were you, I would study hard for the exam 3. Past Perfect + Past conditional (Past/Impossible) If I had known, I would have helped you. lOMoARcPSD|10616302 19 • We’ve got the framework for a solid argument • He’s trying to support his argument • That will easily fall apart under criticism • Your argument has a solid foundation • … PREPOSITIONS 1. AT (precise) Used with: • Time (ex: at 4.00PM) • Location (ex: at home) • Verbs (ex: look at) 2. ON Used with: • Time (ex: on Mondays) • Location (ex: on the desk) • Wave (ex: on the internet) • Travel (ex: on a trip) • Regimen (ex: on a diet) • Verbs (ex: focus on) 3. IN (not precise) Used with: • Time (ex: in the morning) • Location (ex: in Italy) • Field (ex: I work in finance) 4. TO Used with: • Movement (ex: I go to) • Communication (ex: I talk to) • Some expressions like: compared to, similar to, in regard to … 5. INTO Used with: • Expressions like: divided into / got into /break into / walk into / looking into … • Verbs that indicate an idea of changing from one to another (ex: turn into /convert into …) • Verbs like: crash, bump, run or drive 6. FOR Uses: • Followed often by a noun (ex: looking for help) • If used with a verb, the verb goes in the “ing” form (thanks for helping) 7. ABOUT Used with: • Verbs that indicate concern / something that is spinning in your head (ex: worry about / think about / concerned about / dream about …) • With or as substitute of the expression “regarding” (ex: the movie is about) • To indicate something approximate (ex: we will arrive there at about 2.00PM) 8. OF Uses: • Indicates something that “comes to us” (ex: I though of an idea => the idea came to me) • Indicates possession (ex: a friend of mine) • Indicates something made from (ex: it’s made of Murino glass) lOMoARcPSD|10616302 20 • Indicates qualities (ex: that was so thoughtful of you) 9. WITH Uses: • Indicates “accompany” / “together” (ex: he went with me) • Indicates manner (ex: he spoke with eloquence) • Indicates having something (ex: my dog is the one with the pink nose) IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS 1. EYES Examples: • Eyes wide open • Short sighted • See the point • See the light • Eye-opener • See eye to eye • … 2. FACE Examples: • Face to face • Save face • Face the music • Put a brave face • All over the face • Blue in the face • … 3. HEART Examples: • Don’t lose heart • My heart sank • Close to heart • Heart’s in the right place • Heart of gold • Heart-to-heart • Break my heart • … 4. WEATHER Examples: • When it rains it pours • Warm welcome • Frosty reception • Feeling under the weather • Hazy situation • Look gloomy • Came storming • … 5. COMMUNICATING Examples: • Talking to a brick wall • Put in a good word lOMoARcPSD|10616302 21 • Just between you and me • On the same wavelength • Keep you posted • Straight from the horse’s mouth • … 6. MONEY Examples: • Dirt cheap • Splash out • Let’s go dutch • Ripped off • … 7. POVERTY AND WEALTH Examples: • Account in the red • Can’t make ends meet • A bit hard up • Living on the breadline • He’s stinking rich • He’s got money to burn • He’s loaded • He’s comfortable • … 8. METAL Gold and silver Examples: • Golden handshake • Silver lining • Golden age • Silver spoon • Golden boy • … Iron, steel and brass Examples: • Rule into an iron fist • Nerves of steel • Grab the brass ring • … 9. COLORS Black and white Examples: • The situation isn’t black or white • White lie • White collar • Black sheep • Black eye • … Red and blue Examples: • Red carpet treatment • Once in a blue moon lOMoARcPSD|10616302 24 I’ll BOOK a table at the restaurant Homonymy (=completely different words that happen to have the same sound or same spelling but they non’t have related meanings) She walked DOWN the stairs I bought a new DOWN jacket Chihuauas BARK a lot The trees BARK was brown Metonymy (=figure of speech where something is referred to with a word closely related to the concept) - The Crown (Monarchy) - The White House (The President and administration) - Wall Street - The bench (judicial profession) - The altar (marriage) - The Press (news agencies) - The china (porcelain dishes) - Red Tape (Bureaucracy) Proverbs 1. Don’t put all of your eggs in one basket 2. Don’t count your chickens until they’re hatched 3. The Pen is mightier than the Sword 4. There’s no place like home 5. Two wrongs don’t make a right. 6. When the Going Gets tough, the tough get going 7. Better late than never 8. Keep your friends close and your enemies closer 9. A picture is worth a thousand words 10. A chain is only as strong as its weakest link 11. Actions speak louder than words 12. Practice makes perfect 13. The early bird catches the worm 14. If you snooze, you lose! 15. A watched pot never boils 16. There’s no time like the present 17. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder 18. You can’t judge a book by its cover 19. Two heads are better than one 20. The grass is always greener on the other side of the hill 21. You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink Euphemisms (=polite language so as to avoid aspects life we find difficult or embarrassing) - “Passed away” or “Departed” vs. “Died” - “Collateral Damage” vs. “Civilian Casualties” - “Correctional facility” vs. “prison” - “Ethnic Cleansing” vs. “Genocide” lOMoARcPSD|10616302 25 - “Relocation Center” vs. “Prison camp” - “Letting someone go” vs. “Firing someone” - “Put to sleep” vs. “Euthanize” - “Big-boned” vs. “heavy” or “overweight” - “Economical with the truth” vs. “liar” - “Between jobs” vs. “Unemployed” Ellipsis (=when you don’t need to spell everything out explicitly) - I wear Contacts (lenses). - Bring your racket (tennis). - Let’s get some Starbucks (coffee). - Heat it up in the microwave (oven). - A pair of Nikes (shoes) Binomials (=2 constituents that belong to the same word class and are inked by a grammatical item) - Salt and pepper - Bed and breakfast - Forgive and forget - Fame and fortune - Rock and Roll - Rhythm and Blues - Laugh or cry - Fish and chips - Wine and cheese - Knife and Fork Trinomials (=3 constituents that belong to the same word class and are usually linked by a comma and grammatical item) - Cool, calm and collected - Gold, silver and bronze - First, second and third - Small, medium and large - Tall, dark and handsome - Mind, body and soul - Ready, aim, fire - Breakfast, lunch and dinner - Going, going.... gone - No way shape or form - Lights, camera, action - Signed, Sealed, Delivered Onomatopoeia (=a word created to reflect a sound) VARIATION: BRITISH VS. AMERICAN Vocabulary lOMoARcPSD|10616302 26 AMERICAN BRITISH Apartment Flat Elevator Lift Mom Mum Hood Truck Bonnet Lorry Zucchini Courgetti Eggplant Aubergine Attorney Barrister Cookie Biscuit (French) fries chips Chips Chips Crisps Pharmacy/drugstore Chemist’s Gasoline Petrol Television TV Telly TV Subway Underground To rent a car To hire a car Go to the movies Go to the cinema American vs. British spelling 1. “U” AMERICAN BRITISH Behavior Behaviour Color Colour Favorite Favourite Flavor Flavour Honor Honour Humor Humour Glamor Glamour Labor Labour Neighbor Neighbour Odor Odour Savior Saviour Savor Savour Splendor Splendour Valor Valour Vapor Vapour 2. “-ER” vs. “-RE” AMERICAN BRITISH Caliber Calibre Center Centre Kilometer Kilometre Liter Litre Maneuver Maneuvre Somber Sombre Theater Theatre lOMoARcPSD|10616302 29 1. COLLECTIVE NOUNS In American English, collective nouns are singular: - A “BAND” refers to a GROUP of musicians. - A “TEAM” refers to a GROUP of athletes/workmates. - The “STAFF” refers to a group of employees. Examples: The band/orchestra plays well! The team (or Juventus) has just acquired Ronaldo. The staff enjoys a 35-hour work week In British English, collective nouns can be either singular or plural: Examples: The team are/is playing this evening. The staff are highly-trained. 2. PAST TENSE VERBS - Americans use the “-ED” more, while the British use the “-T” ending. learnED / learnT dreamED / dreamT burnED / burnT leanED / leanT - Americans use the “-EN” ending for some irregular verbs. gottEN / got 3. HUMOR à guardare link sulle slides lOMoARcPSD|10616302 30 RÉSUMÉ WRITING How to write a CV 1. BE UNIQUE • The CV should demonstrate the unique skillset and the experiences of a person => with the CV all the best qualities should stand out. • It’s important also include some examples of successful experiences. 2. KEEP IT SIMPLE • It’s recommended to use a format that is clear and easy to read. • The CV should be professional: it’s not recommended the use of strange font or colors. 3. DON’T BE GENERIC • It’s important define to whom or to which industries the CV is directed. • Customize the CV can help highlighting the most relevant skills, the most relevant parts of the education and the most relevant work experiences so that the receiver can focalized his attention on those. 4. DOUBLE CHECK • Avoid errors like: • Spelling mistakes • Typos • Incorrect contact informations • Poor formatting • Dates that conflict with each other chronologically speaking • … Those errors give the impression that writing the CV isn’t important for you, that you haven’t spent the right time and put the right care into it. 5. UPDATE YOUR CV • Sending a CV not updated is not professional • It should be update with all the new relevant details • Be sure to reorder the events 6. AT THE TOP • Display the name and the contact information at the top pf the page • No photo and no date birth • Include one phone number and one mail • It can be also included a professional summary • Work experiences and education should be presented in reverse chronological order • It should be present: • The name of the company / university where you’ve studied / worked and its location • Dates (starting of that work / that education’s path) • Include the degree / professional role you earned thanks to that experience • It’s recommended the use of “action” verbs that communicate concisely what your main responsibilities were. • Avoid saying “I” WRITTEN AND VERBAL COMMUNICATION - cover letter and interviewing Written communication It’s constructed over a longer period of time. Written media included: • Memos • Letters lOMoARcPSD|10616302 31 • Advertisements • Emails • Training manuals • Proposals The written media can be: • Printed (as newspapers or books) • Handwritten (as letters) • On a screen (as emails) Characteristic of written communication: • Formality • Organisation of the text • Lenght of written text • More lexical density Cover letter (formal) • Established WHO you are and WHY you’re writing the letter • Communicate why they should contact you back. For that reason, you should make explicit: • Relevant background information • Most powerful accomplishment • Share what is unique about you • Do not say generic things (vedi sulle slide due esempi di lettere, una formale e una informale) Verbal communication Verbal mediums are: • Words • Speeches • Presentations • Interviews Characteristics that have impact on the meaning: • Tone: loud and clear • Pitch: high or low • Quality of words: the content should be organized in order to avoid misunderstandings Interviewing • The non-verbal body language should be positive • Before an interview it’s recommended to learn about the company and the job you’re applying to • Be prepared to communicate why they should hire you • Be prepared at some surprising questions Interview structure: The questions are initially easy and predictable, the further it goes the more complicated it becomes (esempio sulle slide) MULTIMODALITY = study of how people communicate and interact with each other using a combination of modes. Semiotics It’s the study of: lOMoARcPSD|10616302 34 NON VERBAL LANGUAGE Body Language • Body Posture: open vs. closed, up vs. down • Gestures: winking, crossing your arms, shoulder shrug, nodding your head, symbolic (thumbs up), conversational (accompanying speech) • Breathing: slow and relaxed vs. fast and short • Eye Movement: Eye Contact (some cultures it shows honesty, others it communicates aggression), Blink Rate (oculesics) • Use of Space • Adapters: fidgeting, adjusting eyeglasses, etc Vocal cues (paralanguage) • Voice quality • Pitch of voice • Volume • Speed • Speaking style • Prosodic Features (rhythm, intonation and stress) Other Nonverbal Communication • Written Communication Paralanguage: spatial arrangements, layout, handwriting, etc • Appearance: clothing • Distance • Touch: firm vs. weak • Time (chronemics): the way in which one perceives and values time à Monochronic vs. Polychronic lOMoARcPSD|10616302 35 MEDIA Electric telegraph 1863 Samuel Morse, Joseph Henry, and Alfred Vail invented an electrical telegraph system. It was first patented with electromagnets in England in 1837 by William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone. It coded the symbols representing the letters of the alphabet and impacted the language of the news, as information had to be very concise. The development of the electric telegraph coincided with the development of the railway system and resulting need for increased rapid messaging. Empires could better manage colonies and multinationals could better manage their overseas branches. Morse code Named after Samuel Morse, one of the inventors of the telegraph. It’s a series of tones, lights and clicks that can be understood by those who know Morse Code without special equipment. It was critical during WW2 for communication with warships, and because messages could be communicated much faster than the time it took to install telegraph or telephone lines. SOS is the most famous international emergency signal “. . . - - - . . .” à 3 dots, 3 dashes, 3 dots It was introduced by Germany in 1905 to stand out from other signals. Compared to England’s CQD, SOS was adopted for its appealing simplicity and symmetry. Telephone The telephone is a telecommunications device allowing people outside of natural hearing distance to speak to each other. The telephone converts sound (the human voice) from the SENDER into electrical signals that are transmitted via cables to another telephone that reproduces the sound to the RECEIVER. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was granted a patent for his telephone which allowed people to speak across large distance. The language of the operators was English, contributing the establishment of the English language as a Lingua Franca. lOMoARcPSD|10616302 36 Mass communication (= the study of how people exchange information through Mass Media) WHO? (speaker) à WHAT? (message) à HOW? (channel/medium) à TO WHOM? (audience)à EFFECT • HAROLD LASSWELL (1948) à Who says what in which channel to whom with what effect? Mass media (= a range of media technologies that reaches a large public, including Broadcast Media, Digital Media, Printed Media, and Outdoor Media) 1. Broadcast Media (= the distribution of audio or video content to a large and dispersed public using a mass communication medium) 1. Recorded music 2. Film 3. Radio 4. TV Radio: • In 1886, Heinrich Herz was able to confirm James Maxwell’s theory on electromagnetism. • In 1896, Guglielmo Marconi builds a wireless telegraphy system to transmit messages written in Morse Code. • Radio advancements were accelerated due to military communications needs. • 1920’s became a mass medium for the news and the transmission of entertainment. Television: • John Logie Baird: Scottish inventor of the first colour TV system. 1928: first transatlantic TV transmission between London and New York. • 1928: World’s first TV station called WRGB. Broadcast from General Electric located in upstate New York. • After WW2, black and white TV’s became a common household good (colour TV was very expensive in the post WW2 years) • mid-1960’s: colour TV started selling. 1972 marked the end of black and white daytime network TV programming. • Satellite TV: Supplying TV through broadcast signals emitted by Satellites. First Transatlantic signals sent on July 23, 1962. BY 1980 this method of broadcasting was well established in the USA and Europe. • Digital TV: can support more than one program in the same channel band width. Started in the late 2000’s. • Smart TV: Digital TV allowed for the creation of Smart TV’s. Connected/Hybrid Television with Internet features. 2. Outdoor Media • Ar advertising • Billboards • Flying Billboards • Blimps lOMoARcPSD|10616302 39 • Borrowed interest: borrows costumers interest in something outside the company (celebrities, event such as “the Olympics”) • Spokesman/spokeswoman: someone who promotes the product • Testimonal: shares their personal experience with the product Advertising Lingo Spin (= putting a favorable image – can be a form of propaganda) “Spin doctor” à is a PR guru specializes in putting a positive twist on the interpretation of events so as to protect and promote a company or a political individual/party. Comparative reference (= readers need to locate particular items in the text and draw them together for comparison on a specified basis. “X washes whiter” – without “than Y”) “Buzz words” (= words that press the right buttons- change with time and culture) Free+Premium à Fremium Elements of advertising • Logo: symbol for the brand • Tagline: permanent phrase that attaches to a product on all of its adverts • Slogan goes with lines of product and different campaigns The copy (=the body of the text) The copy: • must have a headline that grabs attention • must be clear, concise and focused • must be brief and straight to the point: you have the reader’s attention only for few seconds • include the logo and/or slogan Hook (=occurs in a question form, the initial piece of attention- seeking verbal language used to draw the reader in) What is a rhetorical question? • when a question is posed to make a point, not because you want an answer • the answer is obvious and therefore does not necessitate an answer • to create and reinforce your point Features of verbal text Deictics (= indicate items in the immediate context) à This/that/these/those/me/you/it/here/there Ellipsis (= where elements of language are left out altogether. There is a shared emotional, attitudinal or physical context, so no need to spell everything out as the meaning is already understood) à e.g. Inside joke lOMoARcPSD|10616302 40 Prosodic features (= aspects of spoken language such as intonation and stress. They can be communicated using different typefaces and punctuation) à e.g. exclamation marks, capital letters Different kinds of meaning • Denotation: the primary and literal meaning of a word • Metaphorical meaning: when something stands for or symbolises another thing • Idiomatic language: a common word or phrase with a culturally understood meaning that differs from what its denotation would suggest. • Acronym: IBM, KFC, CIM • Abbreviation: UNIPV, prof. • Alliteration: repetition of identical first consonants • Polysemy: when a word has more than one meaning • Word play or A play-on-words: a literally technique used for amusement. It includes puns and double entendres. • Pun: usually humorous use of a word in such a way so as to suggest 2 or more meanings. • Sound symbolism: we associate sounds with particular ideas • Intertextuality: the way one text can point to or base itself on another (“nautical but nice”) (tutti gli esempi sono sulle slides) ADVERTISING VOCABULARY High quality • Innovative: original and interesting • Unsurpassed: the best there is • Leave others standing/in the shade: you/your product is ahead of the others Value for money • rock-bottom prices: extremely low • Prices slashed: dramatically reduced • Bargains galore: a huge number of products on sale at extremely low prices Luxury and comfort • Pamper yourself: treat yourself to something luxurious • Indulge yourself: allow yourself something enjoyable • sumptuous meal: rich/special à food • Opulent surroundings: rich/special à lifestyle • Live in the lap of luxury: in a very luxurious way Scientific backing • Scientifically designed • Clinically proven: shown by research • State-of-the-art: uses the very latest technology Make us more attractive • Stand out in the crowd: be noticed • Tantalisingly: temptingly • Alluring: attractive • Gorgeous lOMoARcPSD|10616302 41 • Stunning Free time • Rewarding: a positive experience (volunteer work, etc) • Fruitful: produces good results (cooperating with someone in an activity) • Lucrative: makes a lot of money (selling art, writing computer games). • Therapeutic: makes you healthy in body and/or mind (yoga) • Relaxing/calming: reduces stress (reading, listening to music) • Time-consuming: takes a lot of time (being president of a club, etc) Slang word for leisure time • Culture vulture: big fan of cultural activities • Couch potato: very inactive person • Dabbler: person who never sticks to one activity for long • Doer: someone who believes in action and doing things, not just thinking • Shopaholic: person “addicted” to shopping • Workaholic: person “addicted” to working • Chocoholic: person “addicted” to chocolate Food • Synthetic: made from artificial substances • Wholesome: good for you • Whole grain, Whole Wheat, Wholemeal: contains all the natural substances • Fresh: Fresh bread, Fresh fish, Fresh fruit, Fresh Vegetables, etc • Fair trade: product marketed in a way that the small farmers in developing countries who produce them get the profits instead of multinationals • GM / GMO: genetically modified (DNA of a natural product has been altered) • Organic ingredients: Bio • Healthy: good for you • Tasty/Yummy: delicious • Sweet/savory/sour/spicy: description of food • Made from scratch: from raw ingredients • Homemade: made in the restaurant/home • Exquisite/spectacular: very high quality Tourism • Escape the crowd/getaway: go somewhere without too many people • Get back to nature: natural, rural experience • A promising choice: a choice which should be a very good one • Biggest attraction: the most interesting thing to see • Seeking something out of the ordinary: looking for something different • Eco-tourism: holidays that respect the environment • Unwind: relax, reduce your stress • Recharge: get your energy back • Waterfront: on the edge of a sea, river, lake, or ocean. • Stunning/breathtaking (locations, scenery): extremely beautiful • Awe-inspiring: fills you with a sense of the power and beauty of the landscape. • Unrivalled/unbeatable: no other holiday plan can match this • Savour: enjoy • Adventure/explore: excitement and discovery • Hospitality: the entertainment of guests lOMoARcPSD|10616302 44 PUBLIC SPEAKING AND SPEECHES ARISTOTLE ETHOS (“character”) = technique used to persuade the audience by demonstrating the speaker’s credibility or character. How to put into practice “ethos”: 1. It’s necessary choose an appropriate language for the audience and for the topic 2. It’s important to sound fair and unbiased (= obiettivo) 3. You need to introduce your expertise and background PATHOS (“suffering” and “experience”) = technique used to persuade the audience through emotional appeal. Objective: • Invoke sympathy from audience • Inspire anger from audience How to put into practice “pathos”: • It’s advise the use of a meaningful language • It’s advise the use of an emotional tone • It’s advise the use of some emotional stories • It’s advise also the insertion of some emotionally evocative examples LOGOS = technique used to persuade the audience through the use of logic and reason. How to put in practice “logos”: • It’s necessary the use of an advanced, theoretical or abstract language • It’s super important to cite facts • It’s advise the using of historical and literal analogies • The arguments should be constructed in a clear and logical way PARALANGUAGE Paralinguistic elements: • Gestures • Facial expressions • Posture • Voice à with the voice (volume of sounds) , the tone (modulation of pitch) and the rhythms we can express various emotions • Dress code PRESENTATIONS Things we need to remember during / preparing a presentation: • In a presentation it’s necessary to consider the ATTENTION SPAN (arco / durata dell’attenzione). • It’s important to be SHORT and SWEET: - Adults can only pay attention for five minutes - It’s important to get straight on the point in order to keep the interest high - In order to avoid boring your public don’t: use long text, use technical jargon and do not show any distracting images that doesn’t add important meaning • You should be genuinely PASSIONATE about your topic • Be AUTHENTIC • To reach more credibility it’s important to RELATE the topic to a PERSONAL EXPERIENCE lOMoARcPSD|10616302 45 - The emotionally connection with people is a powerful way to catch them attention (pathos technique) - Telling a true and personal story add credibility to your message and create a powerful connection with the audience (ethos technique) • LESS IS MORE => KEEP SLIDES SIMPLE - Simplicity is the key - The text isn’t necessary, the images are => the insertion of images accompanied with a short text help the audience not to lose their attention • KEEP CONTENT TO A MINIMUM - The focus of the presentation is who is presenting • FINAL THOUGHTS - The message of the presentation should be meaningful in order to make all the presentation like that - Talk to people at the same level - Connect with your audience through your credibility and adding personal experiences - Tell stories and explain the presentation in a easy way In a presentation it’s important also the DELIVERY (= prestazione). The delivery includes: • The eye contacts • The gestures • The facial expressions • The body language • The voice • The timing lOMoARcPSD|10616302