Grammar Fundamentals: Syntax, Morphology, and Clauses, Appunti di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Grammar Fundamentals: Syntax, Morphology, and Clauses e più Appunti in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! WHAT IS GRAMMAR Grammar is a system formed by Grammatical units. Those are meaningful elements controlled by grammar, which combine with each other in a structural pattern and form-meaning relationships. The grammatical units are: -SENTENCE: consists of one or more clauses “If I wash up all this stuff, somebody else can dry it” - CLAUSE: consists of one or more phrases “Somebody else can dry it” - PHRASE: consists of one or more words “somebody else”, “can dry”, “it” -WORD: consists of one or more morphemes “somebody” -MORPHEMES: parts of words, i.e. stems, prefixes and suffixes “Some-body” Synthax studies those elements, while Morphology deals with morphemes Grammatical units are described based on four factors: - Structure: in terms of their internal structure (words in terms of bases and affixes, phrases in terms of heads and modifiers, clauses in terms of clause elements) - Syntactic role: subject, object, etc.; Meaning: expression of information (place, time, manner, etc.); - Use or discourse function: the way they are used in discourse. How they behave in discourse (their use in different registers, their frequency, factors which influence their use in speech or in written texts: ex. pronouns). WORDS Words are the basic elements of language. Those are fixed in their internal form (you can’t put another word inside its structure). We can find: Orthographic words: words that appear in written language. Grammatical words: that mean that each word falls in a class or another. Lexemes, or word types: the different vocabulary items that occur in a text Word tokens: each word in a written or spoken text. WORD FAMILIES 1) LEXICAL WORDS: main carriers of information, that’s why they’re more used in writing, especially news writing. They are an open class of words, which is a class that has a big number of members, it’s indefinitely large and new elements can be easily added. These are the most used words in English. There are 4 main word classes -Noun: can be common/proper, countable/uncountable. It can indicate concrete and abstract things. Morphological: nouns have inflectional suffixes (ex. Plural) Syntactic: they can be the head of the noun phrase -Lexical Verbs: Lexical verbs are different from auxiliary verbs. They express actions, processes and things that happen in time. Morphological: they have different forms 1) tense 2)aspect 3)voice Syntactic: they often occur on their own or as the central part of the clause -Adjective: they describe the qualities of people things and abstractions. Morphological: we add suffixes -er or -est and are used as modifiers and predicatives. Syntactic: they can be the head pf an adj phrase, commonly used as modifiers -Adverb: they express the degree of a following adj or adv. they can modify an action, express a connection etc. Morphological: are formed from adjectives by adding the suffix -ly Syntactic: head of the adv phrase. ES. EX+PRESIDENT, GREEN + ISH -Compounding, is used to create a complex word using other words Noun + noun: chairman, boyfriend Verb + noun: cookbook, guesswork Adjective + noun: bluebird, flatfish Noun + adjective: headlong, watertight A word is a real product of compounding when it follows 3 rules: It is spelt as a single word, pronounced with stress on the first element, its meaning can’t be determined from the individual parts (ex. Goldfish is an animal, while gold fish is a fish made of gold) THE PHRASE Phrases are an organization of words. A phrase can consist by a single word or a group of words. We can describe a phrase by: Its form/structure = we can identify the word classes of all elements in the phrase and especially the head; Syntactic role = we observe their function or syntactic role in clauses (sub, obj…); Meaning = semantic nature of phrases to specify or elaborate the meaning of the head word in relation to the other elements of the clause TYPES OF PHRASES -NOUN PHRASE. Noun = head It can be preceded by a determiner (the, a, her …); Or accompanied by a modifier (good, beautiful…) -VERB PHRASE. Lexical verb = head, preceded by 1 o + auxiliary verbs. Finite verb phrases show distinction of tense, and can include modal auxiliaries. Non-finite phrases contain a verb which does not show tense. We usually use non-finite verbs only in subordinate clauses. In a sentence, there is normally at least one verb that has both subject and a tense. When a verb has a subject and a tense, it can be referred to as a finite verb. Some forms of a verb are referred to as non-finite. The present and past participles and the “to” infinitive are the most common of these. The base form is often used in a non-finite way. Every verb can be used in a clause in either a finite or non-finite way. -ADJECTIVE PH. adjective= head, followed or preceded by modifiers. The most important roles of adjective phrases are as modifier and subject predicative As a modifier before a noun, where the adjective its called an attributive adjective (deeply sick man) As a subject predicative, following the verb be (that’s right) also, adjective phrases can be divided in two or more parts by the noun head (it cant be a better thing than that) -ADVERBIAL PH. Adverb = head, followed or preceded by modifiers, same structure of the adjective phrase -as a modifier in adjective/adverb phrases -as an adverbial on the clause level -PREPOSITIONAL PH. Preposition followed by noun ph., which is called a prepositional complement. -as an adverbial on the clause level - as a modifier/complement following the noun CLAUSES Key unit of syntax, occurring independently, can stand alone as an expression of a ‘complete thought’. Usually the verb phrase us the central element of each clause. The valency if the verb controls the kinds of elements that follow it. There are 5 major VALENCY PATTERNS Intransitive (S + V) = We breathe Monotransitive (S + V + DO) = She changed her dress Copular(S + V + SP or S + V + A) = The cheese has gone bad, He was in the bathroom Ditransitive (S + V + IO + DO) = You gave her the wrong kind of eggs; He asked her her name. Complex transitive (S + V + DO + OP and S + V + DO + A) = It made me so sad, They are sending us over there Elements of the clause Subject : its a noun phrase that expresses the most important elrment of the action expressed by the verb, its in nominative case and precedes the verb phase. It occurs with all types of verb. Object : its a noun phrase that follows the verb. It’s in accusative case and only occurs with transitive verbs. It is contained by 3 Valency Patterns: monotransitive, ditransitive and complex transitive Direct object: it is the entity affected by the action, comes immediately after the verb. Indirect object: comes before the direct object, and after the ditransitive verb Verbs: the verb is the central element of the clause because it expresses the action to which all elements relate to, and controls the elements of the clause. Subject predicative: can be adjective, noun or prepositional phrase that specifies something about the subject noun phrase. The verb has to be copular Object predicative: can be adjective, noun or prepositional phrase that specifies something about the direct object noun phrase. The verb has to be complex ditransitive. Adverbials : when it’s obligatory, it is usually taken by verbs to complete their meaning, otherwise it’s optional Peripheral elements- conjunction, parentheticals, prefaces, tags, inserts, vocatives THE NOUN The noun is used to name concrete things or abstract objects. It can be subject, object complement when its placed in phrases. A noun can be recognized by putting “the” in front of it. TYPES OF NOUNS -proper> usually name an individual, and don’t need the article or plural form -concrete > referring to physical entities/substances -abstract > referring to events, states, time & qualities* -titles > -countable/uncountable -collective -compound nouns -attribute nouns -unit nouns -quantifying nouns -species nouns *concrete in people, places and obj. = countable substances, materials & gases = uncountable VERBS Verbs are the central part of the Clause, and can be main or auxiliary verbs. Main verbs occur in the middle of a clause and are the most important element because they determine all the other element in the clause between its valency pattern. Before the main verbs we can usually find an auxiliary verb, which qualifies the meaning of the main verb. According to their ability to be main or function verbs, they can be divided in 3 classes: There are six major kinds of variation in the structure of verb phrases. 1) Tense present (sees) – past (saw) 2) Aspect Unmarked (also called simple aspect – sees), Perfect (has seen) Progressive (is seeing) Perfect progressive (has been seeing) 3) Voice Active (sees) Passive (is seen) 4) Modality Unmarked (sees) With modal verb (will/can/might see) 5) Negation Positive (sees) Negative (doesn’t see) 6) Finite clause type, also called “Mood” Declarative (you saw) Interrogative (did you see?) Imperative/subjunctive (see) Verb phrases with all of these structures are extremely rare, but are possible. The variations in the verb phrase are related to many differences in meanings. People commonly assume that present tense verbs refer to the present time. However this is not always true, indeed, present tense verbs are sometimes used to refer to a time in the past. Compare: - present (habitual) time with present tense: He goes there a lot - past time with present tense (the historic present): I wanted just a small box. He wasn’t satisfied with it – He goes and makes a big one as well. On the other hand, in terms of time, different forms can be used to express the same meaning. For example, in 1 below, future time is expressed with a present tense verb, while in 2, future time is expressed with the modal + will infinitve: - future time with present tense: He goes into hospital tomorrow. - future time with modal will This part will go ahead extremely rapidly Then we have: Lexical verbs (rung, eat, drink, stay, go, give) Can function only as main verb/full verb. Open class. Primary verbs (be, have and do) Can function both as main verb/auxiliary. Closed class. Modal verbs (can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must) Can function only as auxiliary. Closed class SINGLE WORD LEXICAL VERBS We classify lexical verb into 7 semantic categories: -Activity verbs> action performed intentionally (bring, buy, get, go, move, run etc) Transitive with a DO, intransitive without any object -Communication verbs> communication activities (ask, offer, claim, call etc) -Mental verbs> refer to mental states and activities, do not involve physical action but involve volition (think, know, believe) -Causative verbs> some person/thing brings a new state of affairs (help allow, let) -Verbs of occurrence> events that occur without an actor (become, grow, change) -Verbs of existence or relationship> (appear, indicate, represent) -Verbs of aspect> stage of a progress/event (begin, continue, keep, start) Many verbs have more than one meaning , based on the context which they relate to Raise a hand Raise a child SINGLE WORD LEXICAL VERBS FORMATION 1.Verb derivational affixes: When a prefix is attached to a verb base, the new word remains a verb, but the meaning changes (dislike, mislead, outdo, overcook, reseal, unzip) Verb derivational suffixes are added to a noun or adjectives to create a verb (activate, simplify, blacken, assassinate, classify, alphabetize) Most common prefixes: re-, dis-, over-, un-, mis-, out- Most common suffixes: ise/ize, en, ate, (i)fy VALENCY PATTERNS The main verb determines the other elements that are required in that clause. The pattern of the clause elements is called valency pattern for the verb. Some verbs have multiple valency patterns: speak, help, find, make, stand (stand a chance, can’t stand something), change, meet. Intransitive: subject + verb S + V She breathes Monotransitive: S + V + DO (direct object) She carried a tree branch Ditransitive: S + V + IO + DO Fred gave her a ring Complex transitive: S + V + DO + OP (object predicative) or S + V + DO + A (adverbial) People called him Johnny He put his hand on the child’s shoulder Copular: S + V + SP (subject predicative) or S + V + A (adverbial) Carl felt a little less bold I’ll keep in touch —The 12 most common lexical verbs are all activity or mental verbs – except say Activity verbs: get, go, make, come, take, give Mental verbs: know, think, see, want, mean Communication verb: say — Most verbs allow more than one valency pattern: Simon spoke (intrans.) The stewards all spoke French (monotrans) However, some verbs differ in their preference for one pattern over another. REGULAR/IRREGULAR VERBS Regular verbs Most verbs are regular: they use these same inflections to mark person, tense, aspect, and voice. Inflections are morphemes that express grammatical meanings like person and number Hold on! What are you doing there? Transitive: point out, bring up, find out, make up, carry out (particles can be placed after the direct object; with pronouns: Terri turned it on). A few phrasal verbs are copular: turn out, end up, wind up > I ended up alone MULTI-WORD VERBS CONSTRUCTION 1. Verb + prepositional phrase. Function as a unit Can be replaced by a lexical verb: Bear [in [mind=remember Come as a surprise=surprise Take into account=consider I have to bear in mind the interests of my wife and family It comes as a surprise to many 2. Verb + verb combination Make do with Let NP go/be Patients had to make do with quiche or ham salad He was very reluctant let him go Let it be 3. Verb + noun phrase combination (+ preposition) Make Take Have Do Make fun of Have a look at Take care of Do your hair ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS Adjectives Central adj have several morphological, syntactic and semantic features. Peripheral adj have fewer defining characteristics. CENTRAL ADJECTIVES MORPHOLOGICAL TRAITS: central adjectives can be inflected to show comparative and superlative degree. SYNTACTIC TRAITS: central adjectives serve both attributive (as modifiers of a noun phrase) and predicative (as separate clause elements, usually SP or OP after a copular verb) roles. Ex. Foreseeable future, full impact Ex. This is quite impressive; Wilde called it charming SEMANTIC TRAITS: central adjectives are descriptive (they characterise the referent) and gradable (showing degrees of a quality). FORMATION Using participial forms (ed and ing): amazing/amazed; annoying/annoyed; amusing/amused; enjoying/enjoyed; interesting/interested. Adding word endings or derivational suffixes: -ful/-less, -ive, -ous, non-, un-, in-, -al, -ent, -ish (childish) Compounding: Adj + adj Adj + noun Noun + adj Adverb + ed/ing participle Adverb + adjective Adverbs They can be integrated into an element of the clause (modifier), or they can be an element of the clause themselves (adverbial). I am almost positive that she will be hired. - I think they’ll be married shortly. - Strangely, he didn’t call me back. FORMATION OF ADVERBS 1.SIMPLE ADV: not derived from other words. Can act as both adv and adj. Well, too, rather, quite, soon, fast, down 2.COMPOUND ADV: any+way, no+where, here+in, here+by 3.ADV DERIVED BY SUFFIXATION: -ly, -wise, -ward(s). Wisely ; theory-wise; This new idea may prove to be difficult cost-wise. 4.FIXED PHRASES: of course, kind of, at last… SEMANTIC CATEGORIES OF ADJECTIVES DESCRIPTORS (describe the characteristics of a referent, usually gradable): color, size/quantity/extent, time, evaluative/emotive, miscellaneous CLASSIFIERS (limit or restrict a noun’s referent, usually non-gradable): relational/classificational/restrictive, affiliative, topical/other SYNTACTIC ROLES OF ADVERBS MODIFIERS: Adverbs modifying adjective Adverbs modifying other adverbs Adverbs modifying other elements ADVERBIALS: Circumstance adv (give info about actions or states and other factors) Stance adv (convey the speaker/writer’s opinion) Linking adv (connect stretches of text) SEMANTIC CATEGORIES OF ADVERBIALS Seven main categories: -Place -Time -Manner -Degree -Additive/restrictive -Stance -Linking Deictics: adv that make reference to the time and place of speaking (here, there, then, now) SEMANTIC CATEGORIES OF ADVERBS Place time and manner Each, every, one>singular ; every participant has to…; each student is aware that… Neither, either>both singular and plural Ex. Neither John nor James know what to do; either yellow or red is a good choice for your car. CONCORD WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS Collective nouns allow both singular and plural concord in BrE, usually the singular in AmE. The team is ready. The government are analysing the situation. The police are investigating. NOTIONAL CONCORD Rather than the grammatical form of the subject, the notion of singular/plural in the subject determines the form of the verb. In addition, the principle of proximity explains the tendency for the verb to agree with the closest element (noun or pronoun). Ex. Do you think that [any of them] are guilty? No one of the people who auditioned were chosen. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES Three main types of independent clauses: SIMPLE INDEPENDENT (single clause) I can give you my jacket COORDINATED INDEPENDENT (two or more ind claus) I was cold and so he gave me his jacket COMPLEX INDEPENDENT (one or more dep claus) If you are cold, I can give you my jacket FUNCTIONS OF INDEPENDENT CLAUSES Statement> DECLARATIVE CLAUSES Question> INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES Directive> IMPERATIVE CLAUSES Exclamation > EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSES INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES Wh- questions: to elicit missing information Yes/no questions: to ask whether something is true or false Alternative questions: to ask which of two or more alternatives is the case DEPENDENT CLAUSES FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES Complement clauses (that-clauses, wh-clauses) Adverbial clauses Relative clauses Comparative clauses Peripheral clauses (reporting clauses and tag clauses) NON-FINITE DEPENDENT CLAUSES Infinitive clauses Ing-clauses Ed-participle clauses Supplement clauses Verbless clauses