Political Communication in the UK: Forms, Significance, and Challenges - Prof. Cavalcanti, Sintesi del corso di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Political Communication in the UK: Forms, Significance, and Challenges - Prof. Cavalcanti e più Sintesi del corso in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 16. How political communication happens 16.1 Political communication and British democracy: the forms and significance of communication • Democratic political system • Large population (60 mln) → political communication = vital BUT not automatic, needs organization How is it organized? (Context: democracy, effective communication) 4 overlapping forms of communication: 3 of ‘vertical’ communication, 1 of ‘horizontal’ 1. From the people to the government Elections, Polling, Focus groups, Written direct communication, Direct action Democracy = people speak, the government listens • Elections Important form of upward political communication, although highly imperfect Vote for a party = vote for their manifesto → vote their policies program NOT always like this: often voters are NOT aware of the whole manifesto or do NOT assent on ALL the policies • Polling Way to monitor continuously the views of the population on political issues (judgements on personalities, views about policy issues) Drawback of polling by mass surveys: → quick questions: political ones often mixed up with market ones for researches on products → rare opportunity to express more complex, personal judgements: difficulties in exploring the electorate’s deeper feelings Outcome: just a superficial overlook of the electorate’s opinion • Focus groups Features: - Attempt to remedy to survey’s limitations - Originated in commercial marketing to explore consumers’ views deeper - Group communication = key distinction with conventional surveys Participants: 6-10 people + a ‘moderator’ guiding, encouraging the discussion Working: → Jury-style mechanism - Evidence - Discussion Features discussed: → Focus on a narrower range of issues presented by political parties → hypothetical policies, ‘image’ of their leaders/ associated with the party Problems: - Expensive - Tiny groups → possible inaccurate guide to people’s at large thoughts - Democracy defender’s critics → opposite to ‘conviction politics’1 1 1. Conviction politics: campaigning on the basis of a politician’s own values and ideas Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 since it originated in market research, political leaders should shape policies/ personalities as ‘brands’ in the marketplace → Elections, surveys, focus groups common feature discussion is set/driven by political leaders: raise the issues, ask questions More direct, less controlled form of upward communication: • Written direct communication Organized petitions, individual letters Politicians give them particular weigh: people ready to take this trouble are particularly concerned about it BUT their effectiveness depends on each politician and the efficiency of their office New technologies: e-mail • Direct action → physical presence: marches, blockades, large public assemblies - normally peaceful ALTHOUGH → sometimes confrontations with the police → some group’s belief: violent action = only mean for effective communication - militant groups (IRA = Irish Republican Army) “The armalite and the ballot box” strategy: peaceful + violent (Armalite = sniper’s gun) → written + violent communication: mailing letter bombs to public figures 2. From the government to the people Commands, Information, Advice and warnings For the people to know: - What the government wants to do - What they’re required to do e.g. road signs obeying the speed limit → impossible if the speed limit is not communicated Often: partisan purpose, governing party willing to impress its record on the electorate • Commands Government’s powers over population → embodied in law (enforced by resources such as police forces) → little need if behavior to follow is not communicated → e.g. road signs, traffic lights, national billboards advertising campaigns • Information Last century → spread of welfare state: expansion of governmental services and benefits to the population → deliver of these services regulated by complex rules: population NOT familiar with them → government has the duty to explain how they work → e.g. illustrative leaflets, brochures • Advice and warnings → very common → warnings about what is unsafe to consume advice on the beast style of life → aim: contain expenditure on the National Health Service (one of the bigger public spending programs) → e.g. warnings on cigarette packets 2 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 Why? ECONOMIC INTERESTS Newspapers are business enterprises, they have to be popular, encounter the favor of the audience, so they can NOT be too close to a party which many readers are deserting → ALSO, they can’t be in bad relations with the party that is most likely to take the government Why? Most of times, big corporations owning newspapers also have commercial interests in broadcasting, highly affected by governmental regulations Ownership, circulation, journalistic style and political sympathies of many daily and Sunday newspapers Belief among Labour Party supporters the London-based press (dominating British newspapers publishing) is pro-Conservative, hostile to Labour To be real Very few publication have truly reliable partisan affiliations Reason: most newspapers are closely tied to business → only the Guardian and the Observer are controlled by charitable trusts Consequence: these newspapers will always publish a copy-selling story, a scoop, NO matter how damaging it can be to a particular grouping Broadsheets ‘internal cultures’ Editorial line of the paper often contradicted by the opinions of their star columnists (who writes a newspaper/ magazine column) Why is this tolerated? Often the most loyal buyers, buy the broadsheet for the opinion of the columnists rather than for the content of the editorial leader 3. Papers are competitive even papers incline to a political party (e.g. Daily Telegraph, usually Conservative) publish news and comments damaging their own party Why? COMPETITION = force stronger than partisan loyalty → if a damaging political scandal sells papers, it will be reported regardless → especially intense in the market of ‘tabloid’ newspapers e.g. The Sun, Daily Star → NOT read primarily for their political content: “politics is incidental” → dominated by sport, show business, scandal, ‘human interest stories’ 4. Papers are weakly regulated Legal regulations on the content of television, radio broadcasting ABSENT in newspapers → NO obligation to provide ‘balance’ in a content Only form of regulatory body: Press Complaints Commission • SELF-REGULATORY, controlled by the newspapers’ industry itself • NO powers but issuing admonitions to offenders MORE powerful control: British LIBEL LAWS → huge damages awarded to people libeled by stories in newspapers Consequence: → all national newspapers have their own team of lawyers to read the content before publication, warning of possible libel → rich, powerful people use the threat of libel to prevent publication of inconvenient stories Biggest libel awards usually go to non-political stories 2 most spectacular political libel cases: Conservative politicians Archer and Aitken Outcome: both ended up sentenced to jail for perjury (= false witness) 5 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 Regulation of ENTRY → NO specific license needed to publish a newspaper/ magazine Why isn’t plenty of publications then? Economic barriers e.g. to establish & run a national newspaper → investment of £10 mlns before any income Consequence: in the last 20 yrs, only 2 new daily national newspaper were able to survive (Independent, Daily Star, Metro), even though there are still among the weakest → easier to establish a successful weekly publication, addressed to a target audience e.g. Prospect, New Statesman Why? Almost every possible shade of political opinion has its own weekly paper, even though mostly with small circulations: read by the most politically interested/ committed However IMPORTANT!! Small circulation independent magazines: more free expression, published stories which the national press had been to timid to publish for fear of libel The system of PRESS SELF-REGULATION in Britain Summary: Regulation of the print media conducted by the industry itself with systems of self-regulation. The only enduring legal restraints are the libel laws, provided by the courts. After the 1998, Human Rights Act: many attempts to establish a law of privacy setting the legal limits to the press’ right to report on private individuals. compromise between: NEED for regulation, FEAR of subjecting the press to state controls Back over 40 yrs 1st efforts of independent self-regulation Early 1990s Present system, organized by the Press Complain Commission → permanent body, funded by the newspaper industry itself → 1991, established of the Code of Conduct (later amended over 30 times) Complaints: Anyone form the public can write to the Commission to complain for a publication that had breached the Code. Aim: RECONCILIATION before issuing a judgement All complainants are encouraged to seek an agreement with the editor, then, if the Code has been breached, it issue a judgement against the publication Sanctions: Only sanction the Commission has: PUBLICITY, the offending publication has to publish the Commission’s judgement giving it ‘due prominence’ Why self-regulation? Protects a free press from the dangers of state control Commission’s procedures are fast, cheap (since they avoid the courts) Criticism of the Commission: 1. Reactive, it only respond when it receives complaints 2. NO effective sanctions, especially against powerful newspapers 3. Its most powerful members are usually editors of the leading national newspapers (usually the biggest offenders of the Code) TODAY From PCC → Independent Press Standard Organization (IPSO) Independent regulator of most British newspapers, magazines 6 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 BROADCASTING and political communication 1. A mixed economy While newspapers are commercial enterprises, broadcasting is more complex British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Longest established broadcaster → publicly owned corporation Single biggest financing: license fee = state’s tax on every household possessing a television → huge output of programs • 2 national ‘terrestrial’ television channels • many specialist channels (also receivable by non-terrestrial satellite-based communication) • dedicated channels to Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland • 5 national radio stations, 32 local radio stations History of the ‘mixed economy’ of broadcasting Origins 1920s, Corporation originated as a commercial company to exploit the new wireless technology 1926 Became nationalized, ensured complete legal monopoly of all broadcastings for the first 30 yrs (of radio for 40) 1955 First commercial television broadcasts (private broadcasting) What is it? Broadcasting of television, radio programs by privately owned corporate media, opposed to state sponsorship → commercial radio not allowed until 1973 For most of its history: • ‘in-house’ production of the programs • based its revenue on the license fee, REJECTED commercial advertising even ensuring NO commercial advertising appeared accidentally Principle: broadcast programs freely available to anyone with a receiver → became virtually possible to reach the whole population since the price fell to the point that everyone could afford it → BBC programs = ‘PUBLIC GOOD’ free service available virtually to everyone on demand Recent years: relaxation of the public service culture Programs increasingly ‘bought in’ Selling of BBC products as important source of revenue HOW THE BBC REPORTS POLITICS • ‘broadsheet’ content, style • Dominate reports on public events • Rules to ensure BALANCE in reporting especially in reporting political debates • BBC’s self-image as a provider of public service for the whole nation Cause: historical, had the monopoly of broadcasting to and for Britain WHY ‘MIXED ECONOMY’? → mix of private and public ownership Origin of the COMMERCIAL SECTOR Foundation of the original commercial television stations in the middle of the 1950s 7 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 Press Complaints Commission (PCC) origin: more than 40 yrs ago, in the Press Council BUT the present form is the outcome of a reorganization in early 1990s Aim: to make it more efficient main role: adjudicate on complaints by members of the public about press publications AGAINST a standard of voluntary code of conduct, by which all members agree to be bound controversy of press regulation: • The code of conduct is voluntary • Commission’s sanctions are only admonitions Most severe penalty: oblige an offending publication to publish the Commission’s judgement giving it prominence Issue: due to the high competition in newspaper industry, great temptation to breach any code publishing an exclusive story POLITICAL EFFECT 1. Debate about whether LEGAL regulation should replace voluntary regulation 2. Figures that are part of the state had been involved in many of the problems of the voluntary code How far newspapers can claim that it’s in the public interest to report on the private lives of public figures? Sensitive issue: a wrong press regulation could threaten the FREEDOM OF PRESS → one of defining features of democracy BROADCASTING PUBLIC regulation → access to broadcasting, what is broadcasted Historical feature: since the popularity of 1st broadcasting technology, radio in 1920s 2 problems for the regulation of broadcasting: 1. May be TOO EFFECTIVE Thin line between regulation & state control of broadcasters → sometimes in history, BBC has openly taken the government’s side in disputes e.g. 1926, trade unions called a general strike for that year BBC clearly supported the government against them PRESSURES governing party exercises → politicians pressure on broadcasters to influence their content and style → government decides on the license and the level of the license fee = controls the income 2. May be of DECLINING EFFECTIVENESS cause: technological change, had reduce the government’s possibility to regulate some broadcasting services e.g. SATELLITE broadcasting channels → can broadcast across national boundaries, reaching audience NOT under the authority of national government BENEFICIAL effects: obstacle to dictatorships DAMAGING effects: regulation’s ability to impose public interest regulation use WEAKENED Outcome: technological change is creating a sector that resembles the press in its freedom from regulation 10 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 16.4 Political communication & the effects of the media (BIAS) COMPLAINTS from almost all political parties (especially Labour, Conservative) ON both commercial broadcasters, the BBC about: bias among broadcasters, even though they encourage it among newspapers “The easiest way to be invited fro tea at 10 Downing Street is to buy a national tabloid” → hope to gain newspapers’ active support This efforts make sense if: 1. Media bias really exists 2. Have effect on people’s political judgements Definitely, in newspapers, bias exists, BUT is there bias in broadcasting? More complicated issue → regulation to prevent biased reporting → broadcasters’ professional assumption, conceive their role in neutral terms Existence of SUBTLE bias The ‘way’ issues are framed, how they’re presented e.g. TELEVISION → visual character outcome: implicit bias to the reporting of politics → PERSONALITY: political leaders provide pictures → reports done in very short time → subtlety, uncertainty, ambiguity happens: all those involved in a debate are forced to express clearly, simply their positions Media bias do exist, but do they have any effect? Difficulty in resolving this competition of views → hard to isolate media effects from other forces shaping our views → possibility of disentangle media effects by careful research, that lies behind the 3rd view MANIPULATIVE view + GREAT power to the media → bias in newspapers → subtle bias in broadcasting + HUGE scale of broadcasting consumption in Britain outcome: constant stream of biased material, mass media as our main channel to receive political news, comment → SHAPE our political views, choices → media exploiting us all believed by: majority of politicians, that’s why they cultivate newspaper editors, owners REINFORCEMENT view Bias exists, BUT has a modest role large evidence: many from social psychology experiments → had shown that people interact with media with their own, well formed views that help them to FILTER OUT bias that do not correspond to their own e.g. newspapers = very biased BUT most of us do NOT spend more than few minutes a day reading them → us all exploiting the media 11 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 MARGINAL but CRITICAL Most of the audience consume newspapers, broadcasting fitting their existing views, rejecting hostile media e.g. strong Labour supporter will less likely buy the Daily Mail (clearly Conservative tabloid) → just a minority consume media biased AGAINST their own views e.g. Labour supporters buying the Daily Mail for its sport contents / show business coverage ALSO, for many, choosing which newspaper to buy is a trivial act of consumption → many keep buying the paper that has long been bought in the family Minority, BUT a very interesting one → if they change their view it means that something more impactive than ‘reinforcement’ is going on there’s evidence that this is so: this minority seem to modify their loyalties to fit with the biases of the media they consume → there’s some ‘manipulation’ BUT only of a minority → marginal effect of media bias, BUT CRITICAL at the margins (reverting effect) e.g. 2001 general election 10 seats won by a margin of fewer than 400 votes 4 by fewer than 100 → in 6 general elections since the 2nd WW, the winning party had had the majority over the others of less than 30 votes → 1992 general election: Conservatives’ majority of only 21 seats The Sun wrote: ‘it was The Sun who won it’ That’s why changing the votes of even a tiny proportion of the population can be determining to the outcome of the election Summary: Effect of ‘partisan’ bias = effect newspapers have on party loyalties, voting There are other forms of POLITICAL bias → British newspaper industry increasingly ‘metropolitan’ Newspapers scaling down, closing their regional offices, to centralize in London Outcome: leading newspapers are more London-focused → TODAY issue: inconsistence between more decentralized social, political networks and cultural centralization of newspapers result: newspapers are in decline → new forms of communication, displacing the metropolitan-focused press in political communication The HUTTON INQUIRY, the BBC and the KELLY AFFAIR When? Late 2003, early months of 2004 Accusations: government media managers were so skilled, sophisticated to routinely manipulate information Accusations of ‘SPIN’ in government: form of propaganda through knowingly providing biased interpretation of an event to influence public opinion about an organization/ public figure May, June 2003 BBC reporter Andrew Gilligan claimed that during the preparations towards the 2003 Iraq War British intelligence reports that Iraq could fire weapons of mass destruction 12 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 3. People to people New technologies affecting ‘horizontal’ communication Traditionally Relied on mouth to mouth information, distribution of written material (expensive, difficult to print, distribute → long, tough operation) → British protest groups: loosely coordinated networks Police advantage: use of mobile radiotelephone to communicate WHILE protestors had no means of mobile, live communication Nowadays they can use mobile phones New technologies: e-mail, interactive websites Cheap, instantaneous communication → importance of mobile phone mid-1990s → 15% of British homes | 2005 → almost 80% | 2020 → 87% Movements against the 2002-03 Iraq War → almost any large city in Britain had a similar movement, with its own web sites 3 features: 1. Massive mobilization over short term • Web technology vital to this • Once the material is posted, distribution in costless and fast 2. Links, publication of e-mail addresses of key broadcasting/ press organizations Why? To encourage supporters to virtually reach every media 3. ‘Crossover’ with different but related movements e.g. campaigns against important aspects of Israeli policy 4. Surveillance of the people What’s the extent of governmental surveillance over people? ‘Unobtrusive communication’ We communicate information about ourselves unconsciously, unintentionally TODAY surveillance is needed, long established & accepted → system of POLICING (early 19th century) Why? Provide security in the new cities of the Industrial Revolution Adoption of new technologies over time → expanding the possibilities for unobtrusive surveillance e.g. speed cameras → reliable, comprehensive surveillance → rapid detection, link with a central computer elaborating information Conclusion: New technologies of surveillance can be a counter to the new opportunities offered by the technological revolution to the people at large Discussion on the POLITICAL IMPACT of modern technologies of communication Premise: reshaping communication → reshaping democracy Extend/ make democracy healthier • Cut the cost of political mobilization, organization • Undermine the state monopolies over mass communication • Promote communication between large numbers of physically dispersed citizens • Promote open debate, can allow electronic referendums to give anyone a potential voice in policy making (dream of direct democracy) 15 Advanced English Course & Laboratory prof. Sofia Cavalcanti Final exam 2022 Endanger democracy • Encourage a ‘marketing’ mentality on political leaders • Give the state new means of surveillance, strengthening hierarchical control • Storage of huge information about private citizens • Discourage face-to-face communication and debate, traditionally central to democratic life NEWSPAPER Usually weekly/ daily, printed on cheap, low-quality paper contains news, as well as other articles TABOID Pages half the dimension of the standard format Favors stories of sensational nature over more serious news BROADSHEET Largest newspaper format Generally covering more serious topics than tabloids 16