Understanding Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences: A Comprehensive Guide - Prof. Caponi, Appunti di Letteratura Angloamericana

Scarica Understanding Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences: A Comprehensive Guide - Prof. Caponi e più Appunti in PDF di Letteratura Angloamericana solo su Docsity! 3 modules: Modules 1-2 → semester 1 Modules 3 → semester 2 Module 1) English syntax Module 2 and 3) English for intercultural communication and mediation, intercultural pragmatics Books: ✔ The frameworks of english Ballard, Kim (chapters 2,5,6,7) Language and culture at Work. FROM WORDS TO CLAUSES: INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX An example to sight translate → The soon-to-be dismissed manager made one last-ditch attempt to persuade the board that his decisions, however unfortunate, had been made in good faith. [The soon-to-be-dismissed manager] [made] [one last-ditch attempt] [to persuade the board] [that] [his decisions [, however unfortunate,] had been made in good faith.] Principle of non-separation → In qualsiasi azienda, a prescindere dalle dimensioni, è, come noto, di particolare importanza la funzione delle risorse umane. As is well known (additional adverbial), the human resource function (S) plays (P) a key role (O) in every company (optional adverbial) regardless of its size. (additional adverbials) What does this prove? ★ That understanding it all does not mean you can translate it all; ★ That syntax helps with practical tasks; ★ That some syntactic structures are pose challenges which can be overcome by analysing them, contrastively. So, what is syntax Language is made of sounds, more precisely meaningful sounds. Sounds are used in a meaningful way to distinguish different words (for example minimal pairs). In general, it can be stated that words are perceived as being the closest one can get to a sort of “unit meaning”. Are words truly the smallest unit of language? The simplest way of talking about language: focusing on words that are considered the most intuitively elementary “building blocks” of language. In general, it can be stated that words are perceived as being the closest one can get to a sort of «unit of meaning». Dog, dog-s → grammatical morpheme Love, lov-ing, lov-er → from verb to adjective to noun by adding morphemes. Hope-less-ness Morphemes 1 Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units that make up words and serve a grammatical function. There are two types of them: free morphemes and bound morphemes (both expressed in between braces). There are no morpheme-less words! ➔ Free morphemes are words that can stand alone and have meaning, e.g. trip (noun), long (adjective), fly (verb); ➔ Bound morphemes cannot stand alone because they have no meaning of their own, e.g. -ly, un-, dis-, -ship, -ism. Bound morphemes are also called affixes and can either be prefixes (occurring at the beginning of free morphemes), e.g. unkind, dislike; suffixes (occurring at the end of free morphemes), e.g. kindness, friendship; or infixes (occurring in the middle of free morphemes, although they are not common in the English language): Words can have multiple affixes, e.g.un-like-li-hood One word - one meaning? Is there a one-to-one correspondence between words and meaning? The same “word” can have more meanings. Ex. knows/nose or “We have run out of handouts”. Phrasal verbs the original meaning of the verb is changed by a preposition We have run out of houndouts. → Finire The boss finally gave in and agreed to a raise. → Cedere We can look this word up in a dictionary. → Cercare Metaphorical expression We all would like to have our cake and eat it too. And what about the meaning of… → table; love; democracy; of; which; you; there; the; must. The words above have more than one meaning. Word classes Words can be classified into classes. ➔ Open classes: nouns… ➔ Close classes: grammar and functional words Nine major word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, prepositions and conjunctions. Two minor word classes: interjections and numerals. Building larger units of meaning The next rank after words are phrases. Words are the constituent elements of phrases. At the phrase rank, we discover that it is possible to analyse each structure in more than one way. To study this phenomenon more closely, we will look at phrase structure in English. A focus on syntax? Syntax is concerned with the rules by which words are combined into larger units: ➔ Phrases ◆ Noun phrases NP ◆ Adjective phrases AdjP ◆ Adverb phrases AdvP ◆ Verb phrases VP ◆ Prepositional phrases PP ( → they are different because their head is a grammatical word, not a lexical one). 2 cream These large sugary doughnuts filled with jam and cream → doughnuts is the headword. How can we classify the other elements in the phrase? We need to proceed both in terms of formal and functional Functional constituents Like all phrases, the constituents of the English noun phrase can be analyzed into both functional constituents and formal constituents. From a functional point of view, the noun phrase has four major components, occurring in a fixed order: 1. The determiner(s), constituents which determine the reference of the noun phrase in its linguistic or situational context; 2. Premodification, which comprises all the modifying or describing constituents before the head, other than the determiners; 3. The head, around which the other constituents cluster, it is usually represented by a noun, but it can also be a pronoun ➔ The girl went to school ➔ She went to school (personal pronoun) ➔ Someone is coming (indefinite pronoun) ➔ That is true (demonstrative pronoun) → When a pronoun is the head, it usually occurs without pre-modification 4. Postmodification, which comprises all the modifying constituents placed after the head. → Each functional component of a noun phrase (NP) can be further subclassified! Functional aspects those beautiful flowers in the meadow those → indicates what flowers we are talking about beautiful → tells us sthg about the qualities of the flowers flowers → head in the meadow → tells us where the flowers are Functional classification Determiner Premodifier Head Postmodifier a black dress with a non-matching blazer mixed feelings love for the people surrounding us huge relief that he has been acquitted from all allegations Volkswagen’s plan to recall cars affected by the diesel emissions scandal the lack of information provided to customers lawyers representing motorists 5 Determiner Premodifier Head Postmodifier the small room in my house the grammar book for scholars the beautiful city where I went last month my dad’s car over there a serious difficulty to establish relationships this brand new game released on Nintendo switch the difficult exam I didn’t pass last year my latest experience in England the secret life of an American teenager A wild strawberry jam sandwich A wild strawberry jam sandwich A wild strawberry jam sandwich A [wild strawberry jam] sandwich wild strawberry jam NP wild strawberry premodifier jam HEAD Embedding and Recursion • a wild strawberry jam sandwich • [[[[wild]AdjP strawberryNP] jam NP] sandwich NP] • a jam sandwich • *a strawberry sandwich • a strawberry jam sandwich • *a wild jam sandwich You cannot leave the HEAD out! Form and Function What forms (word classes) typically occupy the functional slots (i.e. determiner, premodifier, postmodifiers) we just identified? Form-Function Realisation A jam sandwich Function Determiners(s) Premodification Head Postmodification Form Definite article Indefinite article… Noun Noun Phrase Adjective… Noun Adjective Prepositional phrases Clauses… Realisation a jam sandwich Form-Function Realisation 6 The peanut butter sandwich I had for breakfast Function Determiners(s) Premodification Head Postmodification Form Definite article Indefinite article… Noun Noun Phrase Adjective.. Noun Adjective Prepositional phrases Clauses… Realisation the peanut butter sandwich I had for breakfast Form-Function Realisation My favourite sandwich Function Determiners(s) Premodification Head Postmodification Form Definite article Indefinite article… Noun Noun Phrase Adjective… Noun Adjective Prepositional phrases Clauses… Realisation my favourite sandwich Form-Function Realisation That lovely Nutella sandwich Function Determiners(s) Premodification Head Postmodification Form Definite article Indefinite article… Noun Noun Phrase Adjective… Noun Adjective Prepositional phrases Clauses… Realisation the lovely Nutella sandwich Form-Function Realisation A few biscuits Function Determiners(s) Premodification Head Postmodification Form Definite article Indefinite article… Noun Noun Phrase Adjective… Noun Adjective Prepositional phrases Clauses… Realisation a few biscuits Form-Function Realisation A lot of coffee with milk and sugar Function Determiners(s) Premodification Head Postmodification Form Definite article Indefinite article… Noun Noun Phrase Adjective… Noun Adjective Prepositional phrases Clauses… Realisation a lot of coffee with milk and sugar Recall 7 ➔ He spends one third salary on travel. Post determiners Post-determiners come after regular determiners in a Noun Phrase. They precede nouns but follow regular determiners in a Noun Phrase . Cardinal numbers like one, two, three, four etc. and ordinal numbers like first, second, third etc are post-determiners . Examples ➔ The first three apples ➔ The first six boys Please note ordinals always precede cardinals General ordinals like last, next, other etc are also post-determiners. Order of determiners ➔ The first three boys ➔ The next four days Another interesting case → If there is an adjective (premodifier!!!) in the Noun Phrase it immediately precedes the noun, but follows post-determiners. ➔ The first three famous novels ➔ The last six happiest days Quantifiers Quantifiers like many, few, several, much, little etc are post-determiners and they precede nouns in a Noun Phrase ➔ The few remaining apples ➔ The many successes he achieved ➔ The little time left Which is the correct phrase? Match the determiner on the left to its category on the right. Modifying the noun The function of determiners is to tell us something which defines the noun they relate to in terms of number, quantity, deixis (proximity or distance from the speaker) etc. Nouns, however, can also be specified qualitatively, i.e. they can be modified (qualified, described) in many ways. Modification can be placed BEFORE the head noun (premodification) or AFTER it (post-modification) 10 Premodifiers Premodifiers are words which MODIFY the head nouns they refer to AND come BEFORE the nouns themselves ➔ These doughnuts ➔ These sweet doughnuts ➔ Chocolate doughnuts ➔ These jam-filled doughnuts What word classes [form!!!] can fill the pre-modification slot [function!]? Premodifiers can be adjectives, nouns, and nouns in the possessive form ➔ A foolish, expensive idea ➔ A leather suitcase ➔ Several party guests ➔ The London experience ➔ Children’s playground ➔ Composer’s music Occasionally items belonging to other word classes may appear in premodifying position, but these are exceptions: ➔ The then teacher ➔ Their do-as-you-please attitude To sum up To be noted: ➔ A rather nice invitation ➔ *A rather invitation Nice is a phrase (it can be expanded); it is a phrase within a phrase [a[[rather]AdvP nice]AdjP invitation]NP This is an example of EMBEDDING! The head To be noted: Pronouns, cardinal numerals and some adjectives which can appear pronominally may function as head in a noun phrase! ➔ Anyone may come ➔ The magnificent seven ➔ The innocent were allowed to leave Postmodifiers 11 They modify the head, but come AFTER it The proposal for a new building which the committee put forward last week [The proposal [for a new building] [which the committee put forward last week]] Please note: The proposal for a new building which will be located on the riverside [The proposal [for a new building [which will be located on the riverside]]] Head nouns can be postmodified by both phrases and clauses Phrases: Prepositional phrases: very common (A game of cards) Adverb phrases: only occur postnominally when referring to time or place (the trip abroad) Adjective phrases: very rare postnominally (the president elect) Clauses: Relative clauses: The man I met yesterday That-clauses: The belief that God exists Comparative clauses: Rachel gave a louder cry than Miriam did A range of non-finite clauses: the storm brewing at sea; a place to stay (both are non-finite relative clauses!!!!!!) Postmodification ➔ The people in the queue started complaining. ➔ The woman sitting in the front seat of the car was talking on the phone. ➔ Students interested in the trip should sign up by tomorrow. ➔ This is not a book to read at night unless you love having garish nightmares. ➔ This is a more interesting conference than the one I attended yesterday. Postmodification ➔ [The people in the queue] started complaining. ➔ [The woman sitting in the front seat of the car] was talking on the phone. ➔ [Students interested in the trip] should sign up by tomorrow. ➔ This is not [a book to read at night] unless you love having garish nightmares. ➔ This is [a more interesting conference than the one I attended yesterday]. Realisation of postmodification Make up possibile postmodifiers! HEAD Prepositional phrase Relative clause That clause Non finite clause Book On the table That I bought yesterday To read on the beach 12 The many Interesting Case studies Collected in this book The first three theory-oriented chapters -The then President of the US -The many crime stories published by Agatha Christie - Both my first two vintage cars double the already large amount paid upon booking - A not so exciting experience Determiners Premodification Head Postmodification Pre-det Central det Post det The Then President Of the US The Many Crime Stories Published by Agatha Christie Both My First two Vintage Cars Double The …………. Already large Amount Paid upon booking A Not so exciting Experience Adjective phrase: Structure An adjective phrase consists of an adjective and all of its modifiers and complements. The smallest possible adjective phrase therefore consists of just an adjective Ex: Sally wants a really big car → «really» is part of the adjective phrase of which «big» is the head! Function of AdjP Adjectives are always the heads of adjective phrases. AdjPs function in 2 ways: 1) Within a NP to modify a head noun or pronoun; 2) Directly in a predicate, to predicate something about a subject or object (interface with clause structure!) Position of adjectives Noun-modifying (attributive and postmodifying) AdjPs that appear within the NP can either precede or follow the head! If the head is an indefinite pronoun, then an AdjP that modifies it must follow the pronoun! Ex: Anybody clever should be able to turn that thing into something quite useful. But → A clever person should be able to turn that thing into a quite useful object Sharon is clever The medicine tastes nasty They called me stupid I found the medicine disgusting / I found the disgusting [premodifier! Attributive function] medicine effective. Predicative function! Predicate: AdjP can also function directly in the predicate. Predicate adjective phrases describe or qualify a NP in the clause. If a predicate adjective phrase is about the subject, then the AdjP is a subject complement. If it is about the object, then it is an object complement Attributive or predicative? 15 ➔ Toyota manufactures hybrid <A> vehicles. ➔ The company is profitable. <P> ➔ There are several new <A> models in the pipeline. ➔ At the recent <A> launch, the press were present <P> in scores. ➔ The new <A> intern is very knowledgeable. <P> ➔ The canteen is always crowded. <P> Compare ➔ The new <A> intern is very knowledgeable. <P> ➔ The canteen is always crowded. <P> ➔ The new <A> intern is a very knowledgeable person. <A> ➔ The canteen is always the most crowded place. <A> Constraints Some Adjectives can only appear as heads Of attributive adjective phrase The late (=the one who recently died) king of France liked toads *Someone late liked toads *I consider the king of France late *The king of France is late Adjective Phrases With Certain Heads Are Typically postpositive: The concert proper lasts 2 hours, but the event is much longer. Constraints Some adjectives can be the heads of postpositive or predicate adjective phrases, but not of attributive adjective phrases The children present watched the accident in horror *The present children watched the accident in horror The small children were afraid *The afraid children were small Functional constituents in the AdjP The adjective phrase in English has 3 functional constituents: 1) Premodification, those modifying, describing, or qualifying constituents which precede the head; 2) The head, which is an adjective or participle serving as the focus of the phrase; 3) Postmodification, that modifying constituent which follows the head; complementation, (the major subcategory of postmodification here) that constituent which follows any postmodification and completes the specification of a meaning implied by the head. Identification of adjective phrases 16 In the following examples (they are all clauses!!!!), identify the adjective phrases, focusing on their constituents (i.e., the elements which appear in them) ➔ Mary is happy ➔ The little boy was excited indeed ➔ The weather is supposed to be partly cloudy tomorrow ➔ She may be old, but she is clearly young in spirit ➔ Paul is very energetic for his age ➔ Susan is so extremely sweet ➔ This sounds too good to be true ➔ This sauce is hot enough for me ➔ Mary is quite worried about the results of the test ➔ It’s unusually sunny for this time of year Function Premodifier Head Postmodifier happy little excited indeed partly cloudy old clearly young in spirit very energetic for his age so extremely sweet too good to be true hot enough for me quite worried about the results of the test unusually sunny for this time of year Adverb Form Adverb Adjective Prepositional phrase Adverb phrase Infinitive clause Notice that the order of constituents in the adjective phrase, like all other phrase structures in English, is relatively fixed, helping us determine the constituent elements. Adverb Phrase An adverb phrase consists of an adverb head and all its modifiers. Only adverb phrases can modify adverbs, but adverbs can have various types of complementation In the following examples, identify the adverb phrases, focusing on their constituents (i.e., the elements which appear in them) ➔ She walked quietly past the door. 17 The Board of Directors has/have declared that they are very happy with the quarterly results. L'investimento dell'azienda nelle attività di marketing non è stato sufficientemente incisivo. Se lo fosse stato, i risultati sarebbero stati migliori. The company's investment in marketing activities has not been effective enough. If it had been effective, the results would have been better. Non sono mai stato così felice di aver passato un esame! I have never been so happy to pass an exam! L'azienda è sull'orlo del collasso. Arriverà a stento alla fine dell'anno. The company is on the verge of collapse. It seems hardly capable of getting to the end of the year. Il team ha lavorato in maniera estremamente efficiente. The team worked extremely efficiently. La vendita della nuova collezione è stata talmente rapida che entro i primi due giorni avevamo finito tutti prodotti. The sale of the new collection went so well that by the second day we had run out of stock. Se l'azienda vuole sopravvivere, bisogna trovare qualcuno sufficientemente creativo da rivoluzionare il nostro marchio. If the company is to survive, it is necessary to find someone creative enough to revolutionise our brand. L'azienda si sta muovendo con estrema aggressività alla conquista di mercati stranieri. The company is moving extremely aggressively to conquer foreign markets. Tutti i manager presenti alla riunione concordano che sia necessario cambiare le strategie di marketing attuali. All managers present at the meeting agree that current marketing strategies must be changed. Non ci si può aspettare che l'azienda sia innovativa: gli investimenti in Ricerca e Sviluppo fatti negli ultimi anni sono stati minimi, e certamente non sufficientemente mirati. The company cannot be expected to be innovative: R&D investments made over the last few years have been minimal, and certainly hardly focused enough. Ci sono molte valide ragioni per essere piuttosto diffidenti nei confronti della proposta di fusione (merger). There are many valid reasons to be diffident towards the merger proposal. La società ha numerose controllate (subsidiaries) locali nei molteplici paesi in cui opera. The company has several subsidiaries in the multiple countries where it operates. È assolutamente essenziale per il futuro dell'azienda una definizione accurata degli obiettivi strategici da implementare nei prossimi tre anni. -A clear definition of the strategic objectives to implement in the next three years is absolutely essential for the future of the company. -It is absolutely crucial for the future of the company to clearly define the strategic objectives to impolement in the next three years. Non credo che si possano prevedere con ragionevole certezza gli sviluppi futuri del settore. 20 I don’t think that the future developments of the sector can be predicted with reasonable certainty. Il successo dell’azienda è stato istantaneo e la performance si è mantenuta piuttosto stabile negli anni immediatamente successivi alla fondazione. The company’s success was instantaneous and its performance remained rather stable in the years immediately following its foundation. Si è trattato di un successo totalmente inaspettato, che ha colto di sorpresa anche gli analisti più esperti. It was a totally unexpected success, which cought even the most experienced analysts by surprise. L’obiettivo di questa relazione è di illustrare le iniziative messe in atto negli ultimi sei mesi per migliorare la performance della società. The aim of this report is to describe the initiatives implemented in the last six months to improve the performance of the company. È stata incrementata la produzione grazie a un aumento dei turni di lavoro, che sono passati da due a tre, comprendendo anche un turno notturno. Production rose thanks to an increase in the number of shifts, which have risen from two to three, including a night shift. Sono stati ottimizzati anche i costi; è stato infatti concluso favorevolmente un accordo con uno dei nostri fornitori principali. Il nuovo contratto è su base biennale e prevede uno sconto del 15% rispetto a quello precedente, che era annuale (ma rinnovabile). Costs were optimised / we optimised costs; we signed a favourable agreement with one of our main suppliers. The new deal has a two-year validity and includes a 15% discount on the previous agreement, which was annual (but renewable). La previsione per il 2018 è che le spese si mantengano sostanzialmente invariate, mentre la produzione avrà un probabile incremento del 20%, con un impatto positivo sui ricavi totali. The outlook for 2018 is that expenses will remain essentially stable, while production will likely experience a 20% increase, with a positive impact on overall turnover. Prepositional phrases • Prepositional phrases differ from the other types of phrases in that a preposition cannot stand alone as the head word of a phrase. • A preposition has to be accompanied by a prepositional complement. Typically, this is a noun phrase. NP Jackie VP was searching PP in the cupboard [in the cupboard]PP [in [the cupboard]NP]PP PP can consist of: ● Preposition + noun phrase (in the car) ● Preposition + adverb (above here) ● Preposition + clause (thank you for coming) Examples Identify the phrases in these examples. Be careful: embeddedness criteria may vary! Tom gave Kate a large bouquet of roses. - [Tom] [gave] [Kate] [a [large] bouquet [of [roses]NP]PP]NP. 21 - Tom gave Kate a large bouquet - *Tom gave Kate of roses Heidi cycled fifty miles for charity. - Heidi cycled [fifty milesNP] [for [charity]NP]PP. - Heidi cycled fifty miles. - Heidi cycled for charity. Analyse the following NPs, identifying all embedded phrases and elements (a) a white dress with a dropped waistline (a) [a [white]AdjP dress [with [a [dropped]AdjP waistline]NP]PP]NP (b) the east gate of the park (b) [the [east]AdvP gate [of [the park]NP]PP]NP (c) those large paintings by Renoir (c) [those [large]AdjP paintings [by [Renoir]NP]PP]NP (d) the rather frightening bats up under the eaves (d) [the [[rather]AdvP [frightening]]AdjP bats [up under [the eaves]NP]PP]NP *use of two prepositions in a row! Compare complex/compound prepositions! E.g. out of, because of, relating to… (e) a tall, bald man with a bushy moustache (e) a tall, bald man [with a bushy moustache] (f) a long vacation on the Caribbean island of Trinidad or Jamaica (f) [a [long]AdjP vacation (head) [on [the Caribbean island [of [Trinidad]PP or [Jamaica]NP]PP]NP]PP]NP Trinidad or Jamaica: coordinated NPs (via the conjunction OR) (g) his most recent, very provocative novel (g) [his [[most]AdvP recent]AdjP, [[very]AvP provocative]AdjP novel]NP (h) your very much deserved success in your career (h) [your [[[very]AdvP much]AdvP deserved]AdjP success [in [your career]NP]PP] (i) a very long and boring modern novel (i)a [very [long]AdjP and [boring]AdjP] [modern]AdjP novel (ii)a [[very] long]AdjP and [boring]AdjP [modern]AdjP novel long and boring → coordinated AdjPs “very” may pre-modify “long” ONLY, or both “long” and “boring" (the novel may be boring besides being very long; or it may be very long and very boring. (j) the weather in Vancouver on any given day in winter (j) the weather [in Vancouver]PP [on [any given day [in winter]PP]NP]PP Please notice that “in winter” postmodifies “day”: we are talking about “any given winter day!”) 22 He will [modality: future] like it for sure. He might [modality] want to stay longer He has [aspect] been [aspect] telling everybody about his trip. He will [modality] probably be [aspect] talking about it for many months to come… He has [aspect] been [voice] selected from a large pool applicants. The mood The mood system in English is divided into 4 subcategories. The indicative mood - The indicative mood 'indicates' it conveys to the listener/reader that the speaker/writer is making a statement, referring to the real world in an honest, direct, relevant way (cf. Grice’s maxims). - The majority of our expressions are indicative in mood. Speakers signal the indicative mood by using word order: when the auxiliaries take their "usual" position following the 'subject,' we interpret the clause as being in the indicative mood. The interrogative mood The interrogative mood signals the speakers' desire for information, that they are asking a question, that they are 'interrogating' the listeners. The interrogative is marked by starting a clause with an auxiliary verb or an interrogative pronoun. - Can Liz do that? - What will Liz do? The imperative mood The imperative mood expresses the speakers' sense of a command, request, or exhortation - an imperative. Speakers signal the imperative mood by using a base form of the verb in clause initial position. - Do that! - Be here by 8:00 pm. The subjunctive mood The subjunctive mood expresses the speakers' sense of the unlikely, a wish, a prayer, a hope. The subjunctive describes the state of affairs as speakers wish or hope them to be. It describes hypothetical situations, "some other world." Speakers signal the subjunctive by beginning subordinate clauses with an auxiliary or by using subordinators that overtly mark hypothetical conditions. - Had I known you were coming, I'd have baked a cake. - If I were a millionaire, I'd endow an award in your honor. The subjunctive - ctd The subjunctive may be marked in the verb phrase by the use of an “unusual” subject-verb concord (I/he/she/were; I suggest she do) - I suggest that Ms. Jones reconsider her decision. 25 - The administration insists that no one be exempted from the placement exams. also used in several older, formulaic subjunctive expressions that have survived in the modern language. - God save the King. - Heaven forbid it should snow again. The board suggested that production [step up] be stepped up. The board suggested that the company [step up] step up production. The board suggested [step up] stepping up production. The independent auditors recommended that the company [continue] continue the initiative. The independent auditors recommended that the initiative [continue] be continued. The independent auditors recommended [continue] continuing the initiative. Please note → ALL THESE ARE INCORRECT! *The board suggested that production is stepped up. *The board suggested that the company steps up production. *The board suggested to step up production. *The board suggested the company to step up production. Please note → THESE ARE THE POSSIBLE OPTIONS! The tutor advised me to talk to the teacher. The tutor suggested that I talk to the teacher. The tutor suggested talking to the teacher. I was advised to talk to the teacher. It was suggested to me that I [should] talk to the teacher. TENSE AND ASPECT Tense WhatsApp has more than 400m users around the world and claims it is adding more than 1 million new registered users a day. It allows unlimited free text messaging and picture sending between users and is among the world’s most downloaded mobile apps. Facebook’s successful bid comes after Google reportedly made a $1bn offer for the company last year. Tense systems mark time. Tense is an inflection on the verb that indicates the time reference of the expression. In English, tense is marked on the first verb of the verb phrase. ● 'finite' verbs → marked for tense (I went; she does) ● ‘nonfinite’ verbs> verb forms that do not carry a tense inflection (going; said) English has 2 tenses ● PRESENT, marked with the –s for the third person singular, and ● PAST, marked with –ed or by one of several inflections / root changes Time frames and tense The present tense can be used to refer to many different time frames. Emily is tired today → present time frame Emily is leaving soon → near future Emily is clever → past, present, and future simultaneously Aspect 26 Facebook is making the purchase in a mix of cash and stock. WhatsApp will receive $12bn in Facebook shares $4bn in cash and an additional $3bn in restricted shares that will be paid out to executives at a later date. The company will operate as an autonomous unit. The company’s ownership structure has not been disclosed but one Silicon Valley source said he believed WhatsApp employed fewer than 100 people. Aspect signals either the completion or the continuation of the process indicated by the verb in English. The perfect aspect expresses the speakers' sense of completion it is signalled by the use of a form of the auxiliary have and the past participle - Liz has gone already. The continuous aspect expresses the speakers' sense that the process expressed by the verb continues. It is signaled by the use of a form of the auxiliary be and the -ing participle, be + V-ing. - Liz is doing the best work ever. Tense? Aspect? Or what??? WhatsApp will receive $12bn in Facebook shares, $4bn in cash and an additional $3bn in restricted shares that will be paid out to executives at a later date. The company will operate as an autonomous unit. VERB PHRASE Recall The verb phrase (VP) has a structure which differs remarkably from that of the other three ‘semantically full’ phrases (NP, AdjP and AdvP; the PP is a world apart. In particular, there’s nothing similar to the premodification-postmodification pattern which characterises NPs, AdjPs and AdvPs Also, a full account of the VP should include in the analysis the verb itself plus all other elements which the verb requires (for instance, the verb DO requires that someone [subject] does something [object]) However, we are only going to consider the verb stricto sensu. What information does the verb carry? The verb carries information about mood, tense, aspect, modality and voice. - I Went To The Movies → Indicative, past - Do You Like Horror Movies? → interrogative, present - I'm Going Out Tonight. → indicative, present, continuous - I might ask a friend to go with me → indicative, present, modalised. - You should have been told what to do → indicative, perfect, passive, modalised Modality What people commonly call the 'future' in English is really part of the modality system of the language. The modality system expresses the speakers' sense of obligation, volition, probability, permission, and ability. Modality is signalled by the use of a modal auxiliary verb and the use of a base verb, modal + base. - Liz {must/should} go. ("obligation") - Liz will stop that immediately! ("volition") - Liz {may/might} go. ("probability") - Liz {can/may} go. ("permission") - Liz {can/could} do it ("ability") The modal will express a 'future' sense. 27 will be studying will have been told Verbs and tense Remember: verbs can be marked for present or past - I walk to university every day - I walked to university When a verb is marked for tense, it is finite When it is not, it is called non-finite - Walking to university, I ran into my friend. Use of auxiliaries If a finite VP is composed of a single lexical verb, it will be marked for tense; - I saw Ann in the cafeteria. If auxiliaries are present, the first will be marked for tense - I didn’t talk to her. NB: there are restrictions on the order of auxiliaries!!! - Fred might have arrived by now Copyright Università degli Studi di Milano - *Fred have might arrived by now Other aspects Primary auxiliaries (have, be) are used to indicate aspect and voice Aspect: - progressive (she is walking; he was sleeping) - perfect (she has eaten; he had fallen asleep) Voice: - Sue gave Ann a lift → Ann was given a lift. Aspect: Present/past progressive: - She is helping her sister - She was helping her sister Present/past perfect: - She has helped her sister - She had helped her sister The auxiliary triggers a specific verb form (present or past participle)! Modality and voice - She is helping her sister - She might be helping her sister - The singer was performing (the song) - The song was being performed (by the singer) Translate into English - Sue stava scrivendo la relazione sulle vendite mensili quando il capo l'ha chiamata per chiederle di cambiare un appuntamento. Sue was writing a report on monthly sales when her boss called her to ask her to change an appointment. - Da quando ha cominciato a lavorare, Mary è sempre stata impiegata nella medesima azienda farmaceutica. Since she started working, Mary has been employed in the same pharmaceutical company. - Negli ultimi anni molte aziende hanno scelto di spostare la produzione in paesi dell'Est Europa. 30 Per esempio la Fiat produce la Panda esclusivamente in Polonia. In passato non era così. Over the last few years many companies have elected to transfer production to Eastern European countries. For instance, Fiat is now manufacturing its Panda model exclusively in Poland. It didn't use to be like this in the past. - I dati pubblicati dal governo mostrano che il numero di giovani che si iscrive all'università è in diminuzione. L'anno scorso si sono iscritti 50000 giovani in meno di quello precedente. The data published by the government show that the number of young people enrolling at university has fallen. Last year 50 thousand young people fewer than the previous year enrolled. - Domani abbiamo un diario molto fitto. Alle 8.30 ci sarà una riunione, e immediatamente dopo incontreremo la delegazione inglese. Io ho un altro impegno alle 5, quindi per quell'ora avremo certamente finito. Tomorrow we have a very busy agenda. At 8.30 there’s a meeting, and immediately afterwards we are meeting the British delegation. I have another engagement at five, so by that time we will certainly have finished. FROM VERB TO CLAUSE The verb is the core of the clause; Around the verb cluster all the other elements that the verb requires, first and foremost the subject. a) The baby is sleeping. b) My sister likes dark comedies. c) Tom was leaning against the wall of the garage. d) *I put on the shelf. e) I put the book on the shelf. Notice that d) is unacceptable because the verb put requires an object! Different levels of analysis Phrases are groups of words clustering around a HEAD. In clauses, the key element is the verb. The next level up is the sentence, where you have two or more clauses joined together. How would you call the following ‘groups of words’? Phrase, clause or sentence? The company I have been working for for the last three years phrase The company I work for is relocating to Poland. clause A very successful milk-based product recently launched in Italy. phrase Although sales figures are acceptable, the company is planning to discontinue production. Sentence (2 clauses) What is a clause Clause: group of words which includes a subject and a predicate, i.e. at least two separate functional units which depend on each other to make sense. A clause can be ★ Finite (if it contains a finite verb); or ★ Non-finite (if the verb is a non finite form) In these examples we have both finite and non-finite clauses I had something to eat before leaving. After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home. Helped by local volunteers, staff at the museum have spent many years on the project. He left the party and went home, not having anyone to talk to. You have to look at the picture really carefully in order to see all the details. 31 The following are non-finite clauses I had something to eat before leaving. (I had something to eat before I left.) After having spent six hours at the hospital, they eventually came home. (after they had spent six hours at the hospital...) Helped by local volunteers, staff at the museum have spent many years on the project. He left the party and went home, not having anyone to talk to. You have to look at the picture really carefully in order to see all the detail. Notice that each of them has a finite counterpart! Clauses and sentences Please note: when two or more clauses are joined together by means of connectors, we have sentences A sentence is a complex clause. ➔ The company is extremely successful clause ➔ The company is successful thanks to the outstanding quality of its products clause ➔ The company is successful because its products are of outstanding quality sentence You can also have clauses-within-clauses Do you remember the principle of embedding? ➔ [This exam] is easy. ➔ [Preparing for the English exam] is easy. ➔ [Preparing for the English exam] requires [a considerable effort]. ➔ [Preparing for the English exam] requires [that you work hard] Form and function Recall: In phrases, each element has a function. For instance, in each phrase you have a head. In the NP, the head can only be a noun (or a pronoun). Noun and pronoun are formal categories. There is no one-to-one correspondence between formal categories (i.e. word classes) and the function they carry out in a phrasal structure. ➔ A lovely strawberry. Head ➔ A strawberry field. premodifier The form/function interface When looking at clause syntax, we will focus even more closely on the form-function interface. We know that words belong to classes, and that they can be organised in phrases. But how are these words and phrases used when constructing higher level units, such as clauses? Example The company NP / manufactures VP / electronic devices NP. Here we have two NPs, but they do not play the same role in the clause. This suggests that also at the level of clause we need to look at functions, and at which forms can fulfil certain functions. Please note: This is not different from what we did at phrase level. For instance, within a NP, we have the function of the premodifier; which forms can occur in the premodifying function? Typically, AdjPs and NPs, as well as NPs in their possessive form. Examples What function(s) can NPs carry out in a clause? ➔ The chief financial officer (S) released the results for the first quarter (O). ➔ The new intern is staying home (A) today [as she is sick]. 32 Criteria for identifying subjects 1. Subjects are usually noun phrases; 2. Generally they are the first NP we come across; 3. They are obligatory; 4. They determine the form the verb takes There are two more criteria that can help identify subjects: In yes/no questions, the subject and the verb/operator swap position Mary is home → Is Mary home? Tag questions help identify the subject. You like coffee, don’t you? The predicate The company manufactures electronic devices We have now learnt how to identify the subject. Let us now look at the elements inside the predicate. Can we assign further functions to them? In this case we have a predicator (manufactures) and a direct object (electronic devices) The predicator Predicators are pivotal elements which specify the “bare-bone” content of the sentences in which they occur. They “say something of something else” NB: predicators determine the number of obligatory elements in the clause! Exercise: Make simple sentences with the following verbs: Open Run Put Give Be ➔ Sue opened the door SPO ➔ Tim is running SP ➔ I'm going to put these flowers in a vase SPOA ➔ My sister gave me a present SPOO ➔ I'm tired SPC ➔ I am here SPA The elements which you have to include in the clause for it to be grammatical are determined by the verb! Notice that there are also elements which are optional (adverbials) Example: ➔ Sue opened the door [suddenly] ➔ My sister gave me a present [for my birthday] In the following clauses, identify the subject and the predicate 1. Female employment in the UK has reached its highest level since records began. 2. The overall number of unemployed people fell again at the end of last year. 3. The number of women with part-time jobs fell, by 28,000, to 5.9 million. 4. The number of men in both full-time and part-time work rose. Now break the predicates further into smaller units (where possible). 35 The units should be phrases or adverbial clauses! 1. Female employment in the UK / has reached / its highest level since records began. 2. The overall number of unemployed people / fell / again / at the end of last year. 3. The number of women with part-time / jobs / fell,/ by 28,000, / to 5.9 million. 4. The number of men in both full-time and part-time work / rose. Decide whether the constituents you find in the predicate are compulsory or optional. 1. Female employment in the UK / has reached / its highest level since records began. 2. The overall number of unemployed people / fell / again / at the end of last year. 3. The number of women with part-time jobs / fell /, by 28,000, / to 5.9 million. 4. The number of men in both full-time and part- time work / rose. The marketing mix is the combination of product, price, place and promotion for any business venture. Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional The marketing mix is the combination of product, price, place and promotion for any business venture. No one element of the marketing mix is more important than another Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional No one element of the marketing mix is more important than another Each element ideally supports the others. Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional (Ideally) Each element supports the others (Ideally) Firms modify each element in the marketing mix to establish an overall brand image. Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional Firms modify each element in the marketing mix to establish an overall brand image. Small companies can be extremely successful regardless of their size. 36 Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional Small companies can be extremely successful regardless of their size In order to expand, companies must make considerable investments Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional In order to expand companies must make considerable investments The manager insisted that customer care services be implemented as soon as possible Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional The manager insisted that customer care services be implemented as soon as possible We have been working round the clock to solve the problem Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional We have been working round the clock to solve the problem Until recently, companies had a tendency to outsource many of their processes to countries where labour was cheap. Other constituents- optional Subject Predicator Other constituents - obligatory Other constituents- optional Until recently companies had a tendency to outsource many of their processes to countries where labour was cheap. A tendency to outsource many of their processes to countries where labour was cheap This is a NP! Tendency=head To outsource many of their processes to countries where labour was cheap = to-infinitive post-modifying clause! 37 In all these cases, the indirect object has been posposed. This movement entails the introduction of a preposition → this is called an oblique construction. What are the syntactic characteristics of O(i)? 1. They are usually NPs 2. They cannot occur without a following direct object; 3. They always precede the direct object. When they are posposed, they take an oblique form 4. Like direct objects, they can become the subjects of passive sentences In the next slide / on your handout, break down each clause into its constituents and name them. Then, try and produce AS MANY PASSIVE SENTENCES as the number of objects permits. Some passers-by / gave / me / a very thorough description of the route to take. My grandparents / gave / my parents / the best education available at the time. The city council / gave / the writer / an award. Some passers-by / gave / me / a very thorough description of the route to take. I was given a very thorough description of the route to take [by some passers-by] ? The best education available at the time was given to my parents by my grandparents. Break these clauses down into constituents I / am / happy to be here. I / am / a professor. I / became / a professor / [in 2003]. [I can omit this!] My experience / has made / me / a good teacher. The young man / became / angry. The attack / made / him / very upset. Remember AdjPs with predicative functions? NPs can also have a predicative function! Complement Complement element Most frequently, the element of a clause which follows a copular verb such as be or seem “The word complement literally means ‘completing’, so this function is used not to introduce something entirely new into the sentence but to complete what we know about something or somebody already mentioned” Complements occur after particular (copular) verbs, including be, seem, appear - in this case they are subject complements Sofia is a teacher. Carrie is tall. Jennifer seems clever. Subject complements can also occur with verbs of change: become, but also make, paint, colour, rub Sam became a doctor. Carlos became very angry. Verbs of change can also refer to the object; in this case we have an OBJECT COMPLEMENT Mary made me successful. Carrie painted the door red. Sam’s training made him a doctor. Object complements can also occur with verbs of perception, such as think and consider. Jim thought Sarah immature Tom considers Lucy attractive 40 A - subject complements and B - object complements A Sofia is a teacher. Carrie is tall. Sam became a doctor. Carlos became very angry. Jennifer seems clever. B Mary made me successful. Carrie painted the door red. Sam’s training made him a doctor Jim thought Sarah immature Can we identify complement elements syntactically? They typically are NP or AdjP; When they complete the Subject, they come after the verb Ex. Sofia is a teacher S P C When they complete the Direct Object, they come after it Ex. Mary made me successful Copyright Università degli Studi di Milano S P O C Object vs Complement in structures NP + VP + NP + NP My mother made me (Od) a tennis player (C) If the two NPs refer to the same person, the first is an indirect object, and the second a complement of the object. This is a clause of the type SPOC. My mother made me (Oi) a cup of coffee (Od) The two NPs are not referred to the same item, then the first one is an indirect object, and the second is a direct object. This is a clause of the type SPOO. Syntactic test Objects can be made the subject of passive clauses; complements can not. A cup of coffee was made [for me] by my mother * A tennis player was made me by my mother What happens when the O is a clause I find / this course / tough. I find / studying for this exam / tough. I find it / tough / to study for this exam. SPOC, This is an example of object extraposition! This exam is important. S P C *It is important this exam. [There is an important exam.] That I pass the exam is important. S P C It is important that I pass the exam S P C [S] Identify as many complements as you can find in the following excerpt: The ECB is squeamish about the sort of quantitative easing the Bank of England has gone in for. Yet its monetary policy is liberal all the same. The three-year long-term refinancing operation (LTRO) scheduled for February 29th is likely to be as big as the first one in December. The ECB’s 23-strong governing council has only just set the terms by which banks can pledge “credit claims”. This will be 41 especially helpful for banks that fund smaller companies. These companies find it tough to access credit. The Bank of England’s efforts to unblock bank lending in Britain seem leaden-footed by comparison. Identify as many complements as you can find in the following excerpt: The ECB is squeamish about the sort of quantitative easing the Bank of England has gone in for. S P O C The ECB is squeamish about the sort of quantitative easing the Bank of England has gone in for. Its monetary policy is liberal. S P O C Its monetary policy is liberal The three-year long-term refinancing operation (LTRO) scheduled for February 29th is likely to be as big as the first one in December. S P O C The three-year long-term refinancing operation (LTRO) scheduled for February 29th is likely to be as big as the first one in December. The ECB’s 23-strong governing council has only just set the terms by which banks can pledge “credit claims”. S P O C The ECB’s 23-strong governing council has set the terms by which banks can pledge “credit claims”. This will be especially helpful for banks that fund smaller companies. S P O C This will be especially helpful for banks that fund smaller companies. These companies find it tough to access credit. S P O C 42 on the group’s business units during the most recent economic downturn. Instead, he continued to encourage innovation and new thinking—hallmarks of the culture that had previously brought success—until he was finally replaced for underperformance. Identify the clause patterns! Context is a critical component of successful leadership. A brilliant leader in one situation does not necessarily perform well in another. [Adverbial] Subject Predicator Object (I) Object (D) Compleme nt Compleme nt [Adverbial] Context is A critical… leadership A brilliant… situation Does not [necessarily ] perform well In another Academic studies have shown this. Our experience bears it out. [Adverbial] Subject Predicator Object (I) Object (D) Compleme nt Compleme nt [Adverbial] Academic studies have shown this. Have shown this Our experience bears it out. Bear out it The CEO of a large European services business we know had an outstanding record when markets were growing quickly. He failed to provide clear direction or to impose financial discipline on the group’s business units during the most recent economic downturn. [Adverbial] Subject Predicator Object (I) Object (D) Compleme nt Compleme nt [Adverbial] He constantly encouraged innovation and new thinking They finally replaced him for underperformance. [Adverbial] Subject Predicator Object (I) Object (D) Compleme nt Compleme nt [Adverbial] He encouraged Innovation and new thinking 45 They replaced him For under performanc es Clause pattern identification Inflation is rising. Many outsiders see the monetary authorities as unreconstructed relics of the socialist planning era without much grasp of market tools. They fear that the economy is ‘“beyond control”, prone to speculative excesses followed by clumsy crackdowns. About 75% of China’s inflation is the result of higher food prices Food inflation may be an early warning of an overheating economy. The banks gave governments warning signs of what was to come. Three Philippine construction companies and the owner of one firm have remained on the World Bank's blacklist for alleged fraud and corruption Cyprus banks have left their customers short of cash. Basic clause structures What you have just identified are the seven basic clause structures (excluding optional adverbials): 1. SP 2. SPO 3. SPC 4. SPOO 5. SPOC 6. SPA 7. SPOA Relative clauses Consider the following examples: ➔ The guy who shouted must have been on about the seventh floor. ➔ That woman that was here lost all her keys. ➔ Have you ever heard of Guy Preston, who had a hit song with Loving Ways? ➔ I haven’t had a holiday in years, which is really sad, I think. They all contain relative clauses The relative clauses have different functions! Types of relative clauses (Cambridge Grammar of English) Relative clauses are of two main kinds: ★ Embedded clauses which postmodify noun heads ○ Defining/restrictive ○ Non-defining/non restrictive Which-clauses referring to a whole sentence or stretch of discourse ○ Sentential Function of relative clauses Relative clauses may define or describe a noun: ➔ This is the problem which we are having at the moment. ➔ There’s Las Palmas, which is one of the Canary Islands. Difference in meaning ➔ The teacher spoke to the students, who had completed the test. 46 All the students had completed the test. The teacher spoke to them. ➔ The teacher spoke to the students who had completed the test. Some students had completed the test, but not all. The teacher spoke to those who had. Use of that in relative clauses That is used instead of who/whom or which in defining relative clauses ONLY. It is used for reference to either a subject or an object. You cannot use that in non-defining relative clauses! NB: that and prepositional complement That may refer to the complement of a preposition, but not when the preposition is placed immediately before the relative pronoun: ➔ The other girl that I told you about also lives in Bristol. *The other girl about that I told you also lives in Bristol. The other girl about whom I told you also lives in Bristol. OK ➔ I’ve got some exercises that you can practice with. *I’ve got some exercises with that you can practice. I’ve got some exercises with which you can practice. OK ➔ It was like a dream from which I feared I would wake any moment. *It was like a dream from that I feared I would wake up any moment. Zero relative pronoun ➔ That’s a job Ø I could never do. ➔ I met some people Ø I had not seen for ages. ➔ Is this the car Ø Fiona was talking about? ➔ This is the house Ø we used to live in. In informal styles and especially in spoken language, a defining relative clause referring to the object of the clause may occur without any relative pronoun. ➔ This is the friend. I met her yesterday. ➔ This is the friend [whom] I met yesterday. ➔ This is the friend Ø I met yesterday. Zero relative pronouns can also occur as the complement of a preposition, but only when the preposition is placed at the end of the relative clause: ➔ This is the house Ø we used to live in. *This is the house in Ø we used to live. Consider the following examples: ➔ The woman sitting next to Marian is her sister. ➔ Each cell will continue to divide to form a human composed of millions of cells. ➔ Preliminary investigations indicate that some, if not all, of the clients’ money, believed to total £6 million, found its way into unquoted companies and property purchases. Consider the following examples: ● The woman [who is] sitting next to Marian is her sister. ● Each cell will continue to divide to form a human [which is] composed of millions of cells. ● Preliminary investigations indicate that some, if not all, of the clients’ money, [which is] believed to total £6 million, found its way into unquoted companies and property purchases. Non-finite relative clauses The examples in the previous slide are non-finite relative clauses. Many of the same principles which apply to finite defining and non-defining relative clauses apply to their non-finite equivalents. 47 The company’s performance Has improved The independent auditors were dissatisfied with the company's bookkeeping. Establishing best practices is Crucial for… sector Sales dropped 1. The university awards excellence scholarships to the best foreign students applying for admittance to its masters courses. 2. Unemployment figures are gradually improving. 3. Many poor countries rely on remittances from expatriates for the best part of their GDP S P Oi Od C A The university awards the best foreign students… excellence scholarships Unemploymen t figures are gradually improving Many poor countries rely on remittances from expatriates 1. Initial high hopes turned into disillusionment after the rejection of the application. 2. That the company should close down so soon was completely unexpected. 3. The entire project lasts two years. 4. Production will remain in Italy even after the merger. S P Oi Od C A Initial high hopes Turned into disillusionmen t That the company should close down so soon Was Completely unexpected The entire project Lasts Two years Production Will remain In Italy 50 1. The surge in demand is likely to be ephemeral. 2. Irresponsible practices put the company’s reputation indanger. 3. Communication is often a top priority. S P Oi Od C A The surge in demand is likely to be Ephemeral Irresponsible practices Put The company’s reputation In danger Communicatio n Is often A top priority 1. Communication is on top of the list of priorities. 2. Tim sent Sally home as she was sick. 3. The President put great emphasis on past successes. S P Oi Od C A Communicatio n is On top of the list of priorities Tim put Sally Home The President put Great emphasis On past successes For each of the following noun phrases, say which FUNCTIONAL ELEMENT the underlined word/phrase is a. determiner b. premodifier c. head d. postmodifier 1. Volkswagen's Emissions Scandal B 2. the total number of units sold last month B 3. our dealers and customers A 4. an approved remedy for the affected TDI vehicles D 5. continued patience and loyalty C 6. devices linked to emissions cheating C How many determiners? 0, 1, 2, 3. 1. Several two-bedroom apartments 1 2. Half the number of employees 2 3. Each five member team 1 4. Her many talents 2 5. All the many matters that demanded my attention 3 6. My last three lessons 3 7. Twice the speed of sound 2 8. Several third year students 1 9. The few pages left to read 2 51 10. All those many years ago 3 Identify the HEAD of each phrase A record year for car sales On track to reach 1.8 million vehicles Relatively difficult for the company Much too many people around Not profitable enough for the company So incredibly successful May have been selling What information does the part underlined convey? a. modal (including quasi- modals) b. perfect c. progressive d. passive e. support auxiliary f. lexical verb 25. might have been seeing C 26. doesn’t like E 27. is bound to be A 28. is likely to be decreasing A 29. might have been arriving C 30. could be about to arrive A 31. was being taken C 32. will have been searched D What functional clause constituent is the one underlined? S, O(i), O(d), C, A 33. We all remained home. A 34. The new CEO is a really strong manager. C 35. We should increase our sales. Od 36. We must give the staff more incentives. Oi 37. During the past year some of our partner companies have experienced difficulties. S 38. The company’s success has made it a household name. C Is the subject in these passive clauses the original Od or Oi? Hardly anybody had been informed of the changes. Od Returning customers should be offered a discount. Oi The purchase of the new warehouse will be announced on Monday. Od A special gift will be sent to all the customers who complete their purchase by April 30th. Od What clause pattern? The German car giant / has admitted / cheating emissions tests in the US. SPO Volkswagen’s emissions scandal / has devastated / US sales. SPO The German carmaker / has laid / the blame for this drop in sales / on the emissions-cheating scandal that broke in September. SPOA The CO2 issue / has triggered / a greater crisis of confidence in VW products than the nitrogen emissions issue. SPO The device used for cheating emission test results / put / the vehicle / into a sort of safety mode in which the engine ran below normal power and performance. SPOA California's Air Resources Board / is now looking into / other manufacturers' testing results. SPO 52