Translation Techniques and Approaches: A Comprehensive Overview, Appunti di Linguistica Inglese

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TRANSLATION: • a carrying across of a text from one language to another. • Is not only a process (of replacing an original text with a substitute one TT), but also the product. • Is not only a matter of words only, it is a matter of making intelligible a whole culture. • Is much more about what we gain • Can be better than original • Reading and understanding using linguistic competence and W.K to grasp the sense of the ST • The linguistic component needs to be undestrood by explicit and implicit meaning to recover the authorial intention • Christiane NORD distinguishes two type of TR: DOCUMENTARY(a document od a source culture communication between the author and the ST recipient) and INSTRUMENTAL (is intended to fulfill its communicative purpose without the recipient being conscious of reading or hearing a text which in a different form, was used before in a different communicative situation. DIRECT TRANSLATION: • borrowing > in the SL is transferred directly into the TL ex kimono, kebab, computer, mouse • calque> the Sl expression or structure is literally translated (fine settimana: weekend) • literal translation • 2. ST :source text > TT target text SL: source language > TL target language 3. JACOBSON : ‘’all cognitive experience is conveyable in any language’’ (=Nida) • INTERlingual > the message in SL is rendered in a TT in a different TL • INTRAlingual> the message in the ST is rendered in another variety of the same language • InterSEMIOTIC> the replacement involves another semiotic system (visual and verbal) 4. LOCALISATION: • to make local (videogames, social media, mobile phones) • is the process of adapting a product (cultural adaptation) • es: web localisation (translation of website) > date,time formats, colour and iconic conventions • 5 degrees: Standardized/ semi-localized/ localized/ Highly localized/ sulturally customized. 5. GLOBALIZATION : • to plan de design and the development methods for a product, keeping in mind a multicultural audience. (to be easy to localize, and avoid problems ) • process of international integration arising from the interchange of world views, product, ideas and other aspects of culture TROUGH TRANSLATION. 6. INTERNATIONALIZATION: • when products are produced for a global market. • Produced in BASIC central version (neutral) • Es: software are produced without culture-specific elements, and later localisation teams can add culture-specific elements. • Es. Philips > light up the dark > la luce da nuova vita ad un borgo antico 7. CULTURE: what a community or social group, shares in terms of values, ideas, mental guidelines, for orienting our behaviour. 8. TRANSCREATION: • Translation + creation = creative translation • translatoion for a specific market • mainly associated with advertising • adjustments on a campaign in order to make it function in all target market, in order for the campaign to circulate internationally, WHILE at the same time staying loyal to the original intent. • Adaptation (changing words and meaning but same effect) • Es swiffer: rhyme> new invention, not necessary the same words. • TRANSFERRING brands and messages from one culture to another. • Untranslatability (only poetry is untranslatable) in this case we have transcreation practice 9. CORPUS: • a collection of naturally occurring language text 10. CORPORA: 25. ANALYSING MEANING: • Hierarchical: differentiate words according to their level (hypernyms and hyponyms) • Compositional: discriminates specific semantic features of a range of related words • Semantic: different meaning within different context 26. TRASLATIONESE: language that sounds like translated language, it often contains the most obvious equivalent in the TL, but the outcome is not satisfactory, it does not sound natural. TRANSLATESE : a lifeless form of the TL that homogenizes the different ST authors, levelling the effect of translation TRANSLETORESE : automatic selection of the most common equivalent in dictionary or the most immediate stored in the head of the translator, the most obvious word. 30. ADJUSTEMENT: • gradual move away from form-by-form renderings and towards more dynamic kinds of equivalence is thus an important translation technique • we may at times have to re-order an entire sequence of sentences of the ST order of events, ex> does not match normal chronology or proves to cumbersome to visualise 31. ADAPTATION : changing a cultural reference that does not exist in the TC (Mr potato head=ET) 32. COMPENSATION: translation involves some loss, since it possible to preserve the ST meaning and structure, the translator can compensate by introducing GAIN at the same or another point in the text 33. EXPLICATION: implicit information in the ST is rendered explicit in the TT 34. GENERALISATION: the use of a more general word in TT 35. SERVITUDE: obligatory transpositions and modulations due to a difference between the two language systems (COLD WATER> acqua fredda) 36. OPTION: refers to non-obligatory changes (amplify or explicate a general term, or change word order) 37. FIVE ANALYTICAL TEXTS: • Identify the units of translation • Examine the SI text • Reconstruct the metalinguistic context • Evaluate the stylistic effects • Produce and revise the TT 38. INTERFERENCE: • Negative> which states that the lexical-syntactic form of the ST influences the TT and produces non-normal patterns • Positive? • The tolerance of interference depends on sociocultural factors 39. EQUIVALENCE: • where languages describe the same situation by different stylistic or structural means. • Is particularly useful in translating idioms and proverbs • Distinti saluti > your faithfully • is always achievable FORMAL : the message should match as closely as possible. Close adherence to the formal level. The TT follows both the form and the content of the ST. • REFERENTIAL: when we change a word but we refer to the same “thing” sexy>attractive • DYNAMIC : focus on the function and naturalness, the translator chooses the most natural equivalent. 40. TRANSPOSITION: • a change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense • obligatory : French “de son lever” > English “as soon as she got up” • optional: English “as soon as she got up” > french “ des qu’elle s’est reveille” 41. MODULATION: • a variation of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view 42. NORMS: Toury says that simplification, explication and normalization are TRANSLATION’S UNIVERSALS. He considers translation as an activity governed by NORMS ( sociocultural constraints) Translators can subject themselves to the norms realized in the ST or to the norms of the TL 43. FORMAL CORRESPONDENT: is defined as “any TL category which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible the same place in the economy of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the S” 44. TEXTUAL EQUIVALENT: refers to “any TL text or portion of text which is observed on a particular occasion…to be the equivalent of a given SL text or portion of text” 45. MARKEDNESS: a choice or patterns of choices that stand out as unusual or prominent and may come to the reader’s attention. (UNUSUAL WORD ORDER) 46. STYLISTIC SHIFTS: linguistic fingerprint of the translator 47. COGNITIVE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION: seleskovitvh and lederer’s interpretative model > overlapping three-stage process of: understanding (to grasp the sense), deverbalization (rephrase the sense),re-expression (create the TT), verification (revisitation). 48. TRANSLATIONS SHIFTS: departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL. 49. LEVEL SHIFTS : when somethings is expressed by grammar in one language and by lexis in another ( 2 turisti sarebbero stati uccisi = two tourists have been reported killed) 50. CATEGORY SHIFTS: structural (grammar structure), class ( parts of speech) unit (sentence vs clause) intra-system (advice) 51. BOTTOM-UP: reading proceeds from smaller units to larger ones (from letters>word>sentence>paragraphs >texts) from part to whole 52. TOP-DOWN: the reader relies on World Knowledge contextual information and other high-order processing strategies. A reader can understand a selection even though they do not recognize each word. 53. BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE: • fills in information that is not actually present • knowledge possessed by the reads that he contributes to his comprehension of the text • it can be general or specialized • it allows the reads to process information on the page and to create a mental representation of the content of the text 53. SCHEMATA: • organizational structures known to the reader and related to a particular situation (e.g> in a restaurant situation> waiter, customers ecc) • It is conceptual organizer that facilitate comprehension of the text, helping the reads from a mental picture 54. FRAMES-and- SCENES semantic model: explanation of word meaning that ties into textual meaning, textual comprehension and the notion of t-d and b-u. >FRAMES: • Focusing on the ideological, poetic and economic pressures that define the professional practice of translation. Her Hypothesis: • translation are likely the encounter inclusive language in texts originally writtenn in English. • if this were to happen, keeping the inclusive language in their rendering in the TL would not mean altering the gender representation oh the source text, nut maintaining its inclusiveness. • linguistic gender is not simply a meaningless category inherent to the structural obligations of language, but t=rather a significant element for translation. 67. TRANSLATING LINGUISTIC GENDER • Translating English neuters into Gallician: • English has a natural gender system that attributes gender to sexed beings only, although most nouns are neuters • -contrary to this, Galician has a grammatical gender system, in which masculine or feminine gender is attributed to most nouns and adjectives trough gender suffixes. 68. TRANSLATION LEGAL DOCUMENT : • in law, all version of the treaty as equally valid • they have a high degree of formal equivalence • adjustments are minimal and systematic (presente> this) 69. COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION: (Pater Newmark rejects the idea that full equivalent effect can ever be fully achieved in translation) • Communicative translation attempts to produce on-its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original • Resemble to Nida’s dynamic equivalence • C.t should be preferred 70. SEMANTIC TRANSLATION • Semantic translation attempt to render, as closely the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original • Has similarities to Nida’s formal equivalence 71. KOLLER: • proposes a hierarchy of types equivalence according to communicative situation (denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic, formal) • he points out that, while Knowledge of correspondences is indicative of competence in the foreign language, it is Knowledge and ability in equivalences that are indicative od competence in translation.