"English for History and Philosophy" - Ludbrook, Sintesi del corso di Storia Inglese

Scarica "English for History and Philosophy" - Ludbrook e più Sintesi del corso in PDF di Storia Inglese solo su Docsity! “English for History and Philosophy” di Geraldine Ludbrook Unit one – The British legal system: The Constitutions of Clarendon (1164) The United Kingdom, officially "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" is a Western European state made up of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. It was born with the “Act of Union” (1800) which united the Kingdom of Great Britain consisting of Scotland, Wales and England and the Kingdom of Ireland. Much of Ireland then separated in 1922 to form the Irish Free State, now the Republic of Ireland. The collective name given to the people of Great Britain is Britons and the country's official language is English, but there are some areas where people still speak Celtic languages. The UK is divided into three jurisdictions (jurìsticshions) 1. English law  England and Wales. 2. Northern Irish law  Northern Ireland. 3. Scottish law  Scotland. The three-place share trade and tax laws. The British legal system was born with the Anglo-Saxon traditions with a local court administering justice through local customs. It met periodically and took the name of "assizes", periodic assembly abolished only in 1972 with the creation of a permanent Crown Court. After the Norman conquest by William the Duke of Normandy in 1066 who defeated the local king Harold II, a national system called "Common Law" was imposed. Later, after the two important assizes such as:  Assise of Clarendon (1164).  Assise of Northampton (1176). A system based on a new court was born, made up of a real jury. Between the 12th and 13th centuries there was the foundation of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, in an area between the City of London and Westminster which is still the symbolic heart of the English legal system, which made the work of English students lighter because the only law universities in Europe were in Paris. In 1972 Great Britain entered the European Community, respecting all its indications. “The Constitutions of Clarendon” (1164) is the name given to sixteen articles published by Henry II of England at the Assize of Clarendon in 1164. They were an important step in the development (devèlopment) of English law because the Constitutions extended the jurisdiction of civil courts over ecclesiastical ones. The constitutions represent an attempt by the sovereign to limit ecclesiastical privileges (privilegès) and to control the power of the courts of the Catholic Church and limit the pope's (Pop) extended authority in England. Infact, some of the most important articles limited the power of clergymen without the consent of the king, for example: 1. The clergy accused of any matter must be called to answer to the justice of the king. 2. Archbishops, bishops, and priests (prists) were not allowed to leave the kingdom without the permission of the lord king. 3. The laity (leity) cannot be accused of anything by priests without evidence. 4. All clergymen must swear fidelity to the king. Glossary  To empoly  usare, valersi di.  To submit  presentare.  To establish  stabilire.  To join  entrare a far parte di.  To draft  redigere.  To avoid  evitare.  To summon  convocare.  To forfeit  perdere per confisca.  To bestow  conferire.  Made up  essere costituito.  To allow consentire.  To extend  estendere.  To swear  giurare.  Clerk  ecclesiastico.  Bishop  vescovo.  Priest  sacerdote / prete.  Abbot  abate.  Monk  monaco.  Clergy  clero.  Cannot  non poter fare.  Administering  amministrazione.  Debt  debito.  Defeat  sconfitta.  Struggle  lotta.  Laymen  laici.  Attempt  tentativo.  Sovereign  sovrano.  Chief  capo.  Earl  titolo nobiliare (conte).  Justiciar  giudice.  Fidelity  fedeltà.  Convinct  condannato.  Evidence  prove. Comprehension 1. How many jurisdictions is the UK divided into? 2. What is the English legal system like? 3. What do the UK territories share? King Edward III, now poor, resigned and left the throne to his son John of Gaunt. Parliament imposed a new group of advisers on the king, determined to clean up the corrupt Royal Council, and gave birth to the new practice of impeachment, the accusation of corruption of some political leaders, which still exists today. Glossary  To drive out  scacciare.  To occur  verificare.  To clean up  ripulire.  To give up  abbandonare.  To fall ill  ammalarsi.  To keep away  stare lontano.  To regulate  regolare.  To resign  dimettersi.  Shire  contea.  House  camera.  Borough  borgo.  Chronicle cronaca.  Cabinet government  governo Gabinetto.  Bill of Right  legge sui diritti del cittadino.  Corruption  corruzione.  Magnate  notabile.  Adviser  consigliere.  Lady-in-waiting  dama di compagnia.  Knight  cavaliere.  Bourgeois  borghese.  Rightful  legittimo. Comprehension 1. What is the history of the English Parliament? 2. What is the British Parliament like today? 3. How many organs is it composed of? 4. Where do parliamentarians meet? 5. What role does the Prime Minister play? 6. Who is Thomas Walsingham? What did you write important? 7. What was the Good English Parliament in 1376? 8. Why and by whom was he appointed? 9. What is impeachment? 1. The English Parliament was born in the 11th century with the name of Witenagemot or Witan with the Anglo-Saxon culture. In it changed because two different groups of rooms were born, one formed by the people of the people, the other by the people closest to the crown. Its independence from the crown was born after the civil war (1642-1648) in which the king was executed. Later, there were several important Parliamentary Acts that changed its structure and laws, such as the Act of Union of 1707 which united the English and Scottish Parliaments and the Parliamentary Acts of 1911 and 1949. 2. Today it has a bicameral structure, although the Crown has remained. 3. It is composed of three organs, namely the crown, the House of Lords, and the House of Lords, in turn composed of the Spiritual Lords and temporal Lords. 4. The two chambers meet in two separate rooms of the Palace of Westminster, called the "House of Parliament". 5. The Prime Minister is the leader of the party with most members in the legislature. 6. Thomas Walsingham was a 15th century Benedictine monk and historian. 7. Wrote six important chronicles of English history, including "Chronicon Angliae" which contains a document on the Good Parliament of 1376. 8. Parliament convened due to strong internal tensions in the kingdom of England at the end of the reign of Edward III. 9. Impeachment is the accusation of corruption by some political leaders. Unit three – The Church of England: Letter on Henry VIII’s divorce (1533) by Thomas Cranmer and The Act of Supremacy (1534) by Henry VIII The Christian religion was born in Britain between the 1st and the 5th centuries thanks to the influence of the Romans. In the 6th century it was removed due to the pagan cults of the Anglo-Saxon tribes, but it returned the dominant religion thanks to missionary action by Augustine of Hippo. Immediately, the Church and the Crown disagreed. The situation came to a critical point around 1530 when King Henry VIII asked the Pope the permission to divorce from his wife Catherine of Aragon, but the Pope did not give it to him. At that point, Henry VIII promulgated the “Act of Supremacy” (1534) with which he crowned Supreme Head of the Church of England, separating himself from the Roman Catholic Church. The Anglican church can be defined as half Catholic and half like the various Protestant churches. Henry VIII made new reforms, including:  Suppression of monasteries.  Confiscation of the wealth and property of the clergy.  Liturgical reform  with the sermon in English instead of Latin. Publication the “Great Bible” (1539)  the first edition of the Bible in English that was read in the church services. It was published by Myles Coverdale under the order of Thomas Cranmer and Henry VIII.  Publication of the “Book of Common Prayers” (1549)  it was written by Thomas Cranmer and it was reference text of the Church of England. With the "Act of Uniformity" (1558) Elizabeth I impose to use this book for religious services. After the divorce, became King Edward VI, son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, who died soon after giving birth, but he died soon. So, Maria I Stuart ascended to the throne, also known as Bloody Mary due to the persecutions against the Protestants, who was the daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. She was strongly Catholic and married King Philip of Spain, re-establishing the Pope's authority over English territory. After Mary's death, became Queen Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and her lover Anna Bolena, who was executed for adultery after a plot. She was a Protestant queen, so she had many clashes with her Catholic cousin Mary Queen of Scots, who did not recognize her authority and wanted the crown. Eventually, Mary Stuart was executed by order of Elizabeth and Anglican authority against Catholics was re-established. The Anglican Church has also lived moments of crisis due to the birth of new internal movements. Most important of all was the Oxford Movement, by John Newman who wanted to return to a more traditional and ancient church, restoring the old sacraments. Today, the Anglican Church is made up of two provinces, one of Canterbury and the other of York, made up of all the English dioceses. Representatives of the clergy sit in the House of Lords, where three other churches are represented: 1. Church of Ireland. 2. Church of Scotland. 3. Church of Wales. The Queen is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Relations between the Church of England and the Catholic Church have improved in recent years, but there are still many points that have remained separate. For example, il 1922 in England there was a law to allow women to become priests. Finally, there are the free churches, i.e., the English Protestant churches such as the Methodist or Baptist church. Thomas Cranmer was the first archbishop of the Anglican church. After his studies at the University of Cambridge he was on the service of Henry VIII and was excommunicated by the Catholic Church for supporting the divorce of King Henry and Catherine of Aragon. Under the reign of Queen Mary Stuart, he was accused of heresy and burned alive. For this reason, he became a martyr for the Anglican Church. In the “letter from on Henry VIII’s divorce” (1533) Cranmer describes the steps of the official divorce of Henry VIII from Catherine of Aragon, and the coronation of Henry's next queen, Anna Bolena, visibly pregnant during the ceremony (serimony). During the reign of Bloody Mary, English Reformers escaped to Geneva (Geniva) due of the accusations and the persecutions against the Protestants. There they created a Geneva Bible, which was also used under the reign of Elizabeth I. In the 17th century, King James I ordered a group of scholars to create a new edition of the Bible with all previously published translations, such as the Latin versions, the German translation, and the Hebrew (hibru) and Greek texts. This Bible was published in the 1611 with name of “the King James Version”, and it became the most popular translation in England. We also remember the Protestant king James I for the gunpowder plot (1605), a plot organized by a group of Catholics against him, which ended in failure. Finally, in the 18th century was produced the Rheims - Douay Bible (Rims duy), a translation of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate into English, even if the version of James I remained the most popular version in the land. In fact, since then numerous other similar versions have been published. The original preface contains the epistle dedicated to James I, and was written in 1611 by the Bible translators of King James I. Inside, the translators wish the king to always be well, and declaring that his kingdom exists thanks to the will of God. For this reason, the king is the most powerful ruler of the world. Glossary  To print  stampare.  To forbid  proibire.  To strangle  stangolare.  To ban  proibire.  Stake  rogo  Ranking  classifica.  Failure  fallimento.  Gunpowder plot  congiura delle polveri.  Previusly  in precedenza. Comprehension 1. What century are the first translations of the Bible into the English language? 2. When was the first translation of the Bible into English completed? What was its author? How did the church react? 3. Who was Martin Luther? Why is Luther remembered in the history of the Bible? What influence did it have on later English translations of the Bible? 4. Who was William Tyndale? 5. What is the Great Bible? By whom was it wanted? 6. Why was the Geneva Bible created? 7. What is the Bible of James I? When was it released? How was it born? 8. What is the gunpowder plot? 9. What is the Reims - Douay Bible? 10. What is written in the original preface containing the epistle dedicated to James I? When was it written? By whom? 1. To the eighth and ninth centuries when various writers translated parts or all the Bible stories into Old English. 2. The first complete translation of the Bible into English dates to the 14th century and is attributed to Jhon Wycliffe an English theologian and religious reformer who anticipated the Protestant Reformation. However, the church declared him a heretic. 3. Martin Luther was the initiator of the Protestant Reformation, which shook Europe for centuries due to the religious wars between Catholicism and Protestantism. He translated the Bible into the vernacular, influencing all subsequent translations. 4. William Tyndale was an English religious reformer who translated a New Testament partly based on the German version of Luther. 5. The Great Bible was the first edition of the Bible in English that was read during religious services, born after the break with the Church of Rome, commissioned by Myles Coverdale on the initiative of Thomas Cranmer and at the request of King Henry VIII. 6. Why the English Protestants fled to Geneva due to the Catholic persecutions of Maria I Stuart. 7. The Bible of James was born from the idea of a previous revision of the English translation of the Bible which included all the previously published English translation, some Latin versions, the German translation of Luther and consulted Hebrew and Greek texts. This Bible was published in 1611 and known as the King James Version or Authorized and became the most widely used translation in the English-speaking world. 8. La Reims - Douay Bible is a translation of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate into English, but the James I version remained the most popular version in the country. In fact, numerous other similar versions have been published since then. 9. A plot devised by a group of English Catholics in 1605 against the Protestant King James I of England. However, it ended in failure. 10. The original preface containing the epistle dedicated to James I was written in 1611 by the translators of the Bible of King James I who wish him well, declaring him the highest and most powerful Prince, whose reign was willed by the grace of God. Unit five – The new scientific (saientific) method: Leviathan (1651) by Thomas Hobbes Between the 17th and 18th centuries was born a new scientific – experimental method, in the fields of astronomy, physics, mechanics (mecanix) and biology, which radically changed human history, and which is still used today. The most important astronomy and mechanics scientists (saentists) who contributed (contrìbutit) to its birth were:  Copernicus  elaborated the heliocentric theory, against the geocentric theory tradition born thanks to Aristotle and Ptolemy. The theory believed that planet earth revolved around the sun. In fact, he hypothesized (haipotesaist) that the sun was at the center of the universe and all the planets revolved around it. Instead, for the geocentric theory the earth was the center of the universe and all the other planets, even the sun, revolved around it.  Galileo Galilei  thanks to the creation of the telescope he proved that Copernicus's theory was true and for this reason he was declared heretic by the church and his works put on the Index. In addition, he created the real scientific - experimental method made up of various stages: 1. Observation. 2. Identification of the problem. 3. Hypothesis. 4. Verification through experiments. 5. Analysis of the results. 6. Conclusion. 7. Creation of the law.  Kepler  promoted the new method of research on nature.  Newton  believed that the principles (prinsipols) of nature should be evaluated through experiments and observations. In addition, new method influenced other sectors such as philosophy, commerce (comers) and the arts, creating new scientific societies (sosàitis) based on these theories. In London, the most famous was the Royal Society of London founded in 1660 by multiple scholars, to promote natural knowledge and to discuss the ideas of one of the most important figures that time, Francis Bacon. The Society had various interests, including the fact that knowledge was acquired by observation and experimentation, and not from stable preconceptions. (priconcepsions). In 1663 the Royal Society decided to publish a history of the society itself, with the purpose of spread the theories to the audience, and Thomas Sprat, a member of the Royal Society was chosen for the work. The story was published in 1667, with a brilliant title page designed by John Evelyn, also know thanks to his diary about historical information on 17th century England, published only in 1818, with particularly attention to the great fire of London (1666). Thomas Hobbes was a British philosopher and mathematician, with particular interest in ethics, geometry, history, and economics. After his studies in Oxford, he traveled all over the continent and during a journey he met Galileo, from which he was influenced for his subsequent works, such as scientific treatises (tritesis). Later he moved to France where he published his most famous work "The Leviathan" (1651). The book deals with the problem of the form of the state, the relationship between state and citizens and the role of the king. Chapter V is dedicated to Science and Reason, which are compared to mathematics and geometry, fields where there are no opinions. In fact, Hobbes believes that philosophy can also be stable, even though words and thoughts can never be certain in the way numbers are because men will always have different thoughts. Later he refers to the Catholic Church and its beliefs, which are impossible and ridiculous because they are equal to magic. In fact, he believes the Holy Spirit's feelings of faith and piety do not exist. Finally, he argues that even science is not as infallible as mathematics and geometry because it is based on human hypotheses that are never safe even when they can be verified, because they can change over time. Glossary  To dealt  affrontare.  To put on  mettere.  To word  esprimere.  To attemp  tentare.  To convey  trasmettere.  To revolve  girare.  Ptolemaic theory  teoria tolemaica o aristotelica.  Heliocentric theory  teoria eliocentrica o copernicana.  Thelescope  telescopio.  Hypothesis  ipotesi.  Treatise  trattato.  Reasoning  ragionamento.  In reference  in riferimento.  Matter  impronta.  Holy  Santo.  Magic spell  incantesimo.  Wider audicene pubblico più ampio.  Absurd  assurdo. The movement decided to challenge Cromwell but was defeated, and he became Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland until his death. However, after the death of Richard in the 1661, the son of Oliver Cromwell, was reestablish the monarchy under Charles II and the England return to be a monarchy parliamentarian. The “Leveler's Declaration” is a document wrote in 1649 as a Statement and Manifest of the Movement by John Lilburn, William Walwyn, Thomas Price, and Richard Overton while they were imprisoned in the Tower of London by Oliver Cromwell. They argued (arghiud) that their positions and demands were not as radical as Cromwell had led to believe, so they had been imprisoned by mistake. Inside the document they say they want to:  A democratic system --> was based on the equal rights of all citizens before the law and the politics.  Abolition of the English class system.  Defeat of enemies  rich classes and army leaders.  Support the power of God. During the English Civil War, the affairs of the church and state were established in the form of commentary and criticism, through public petitions. The petition was an immediate way for communication and, for this reason, women used it to fight for their social rights, and to talk with the authorities. So, the petitions were not just a text, written by a single pen, but a series of social actions, carried out in multiple contexts and which often involved people excluded from participation (partisipescion) in political life. For example, the "Women's Petition" document (1649) was in favor of the men captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London, to show that they had been imprisoned by mistake. Glossary  To claim  richiedere.  To reach  raggiungere.  To recruit reclurare.  To raise  aumentare.  To blow up  far saltare in aria.  To carry out  eseguire.  To fight  combattere.  Key role ruolo chiave.  Treason tradimento.  Trust  fiducia.  Captive  prigioniero. Comprehension 1. What do the English mean by the Civil War? 2. Who started the civil war, the king, or the parliament? 3. Why was the capture of the king's private letters so significant? 4. How many English kings have their heads cut off? 5. What factors responsible for the outbreak of war? 6. Who is Oliver Cromwell? 7. Who were the Levellers? What did they want? 8. Why were they imprisoned by Cromwell? What did they write during their captivity? 9. Why was the monarchy restored? 10. What was the importance of petitions during the 17th century? 11. Why did women write a petition? 1. The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a series of armed conflicts fought between parliamentarians and royalists that played a key role in the development of the parliamentary monarchy. 2. The king with the official declaration of 1642. 3. Because in this way the parliamentarians discovered that the king was organizing a plot against them. 4. Nobody, only Charles I. 5. Religion, parliamentary power, and the financial crisis. 6. Oliver Cromwell was the symbol of the struggle of the Parliamentarians against the English monarchy. After the victory he established the republic of the Commonwealth of England and ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland with the title of Lord Protector, from 16 December 1653 until his death. 7. The Levellers were a group of the parliamentary army that wanted social reforms, religious tolerance, equality before the law, the expansion of suffrage and the abolition of social classes. 8. They were imprisoned by Cromwell in the Tower of London because he believed their positions were too radical. There they wrote their Political Manifesto which is called "Declaration of the Levellers" in which they expressed their political program. 9. Because there was a very strong financial crisis and Cromwell's son, Riccardo, who had come to power, was unable to manage it. So, the parliamentarians recalled the king and restored the monarchy. 10. The petition was an immediate mode of communication understood as a series of social transactions, performed in multiple social and political contexts, which often involved people excluded from participating in political discussion or action. For this reason, their role was very important for all those people who could not be representative or make their voices heard. 11. To support the prisoners in the Tower of London imprisoned by Cromwell. Unit seven – The British Empiricism (emperisisim): A Treatise (truits) of Human Nature (1740) by David Hume The term Empiricism comes from the Greek and means experience or experiment. Empirical theory thinks that the experience as the only way to know reality from an objective point of view and spread after the 17th Scientific Revolution and the works of Thomas Hobbes and the philosopher Francesco Bacon. British empiricism developed between the 17th and 18th centuries, according to the theory that the mind was a tabula rasa and that only experience could fill it. In contrast to this position there was Rationalism (rascionlism) which supported the innate theory of ideas, that is, that knowledge of human nature does not derive from experience, but from reason which represents a unique system that cannot be influenced by experience. The three main supporters of British Empiricism were:  Jhon Lock  was a scholar at the University of Oxford and was strongly opposed to the theory of ideas of the rationalists.  George Berkeley  studied philosophy at Trinity College Dublin and continued the tradition of the Cambridge Platonists' philosophical group, against both the rationalists and the Hobbes’ theories.  David Hume  he brought the Lock and Berkeley’s theories of to a new theory named skepticism (skeptisism) which analyzes what reason can know within its limits. In this theory, reason becomes accused, judge and jury and knowledge are something possible but never certain because it comes from experience, which is the only source of knowledge for the philosopher. Hume's most famous work is "A Treatise on Human Nature" (1740) which is divided into three books. The first is called "Of the Understanding" who have aims to explain the process of human knowledge by describing the origin of ideas, the ideas of space-time, chance, and the history of the senses. The title of part IV of the first book is called "Of Skeptical (skepticol) other systems of Philosophy" and in section VI it talks about personal identity. Glossary  To develop  sviluppare.  To fill  riempire.  To deny  negare.  Accused  accusato. Comprehension 1. What is empiricism? 2. When did it develop and by whom was it influenced? 3. What is rationalism? 4. Why were rationalism and empiricism in opposition? 5. Who were the main supporters of British Empiricism? 6. What is skepticism? 7. What is written in David Hume's "Treatise on Human Nature"? 8. What is the fourth part of the book in section VI about? 1. The empirical theory defines experience as the only way to know reality from an objective point of view. 2. Its spread was influenced by the scientific and philosophical Revolution of the work of Thomas Hobbes and the philosopher Francesco Bacon. 3. Rationalism is a philosophical theory that thinks that ideas and reason are the only ways to arrive at the knowledge of human nature. 4. Because empiricism rejected the innate theory of ideas, while rationalism did not believe that experience was the only means to get to knowledge. 5. The three main supporters of British Empiricism were Jhon Lock, George Berkeley, and David Hume. 6. Skepticism denies the possibility of reaching truth in an absolute sense with knowledge. 7. The "Treatise on human nature" (1754 - 1740) divided into three books aims to explain the process of human knowledge by describing the origin of ideas, the ideas of space- time, randomness, and the history of the senses. 8. The title of part IV of the first book is called "On skeptical philosophy and other systems" and in section VI it talks about personal identity.  Beard  barba.  Sword  spada.  Pikes  picche.  Spear  lance.  Foreigner  straniero.  Strengthened  rafforzato.  Duch  olandese.  Engaged  ingaggiato / impegnato.  Unknown  incognita / sconosciuto.  Thick  folto / di spessore.  Lean  snello.  Lithe  agile.  Dark skinned  dalla pelle scura. Comprehension 1. What was the British Empire? 2. How long did it last? 3. What territories did it occupy? 4. What was the cause of its decline? 5. What was the East India Company? What was its purpose? 6. Why is it called Triangular Commerce? What was the transatlantic slave trade? 7. What happened with the American Revolution? 8. Who was James Cook? 9. What do you discover during your travels? 10. What was the territory that the Empire cared most about? What was it called? 11. What do we mean by the Second British Empire? 12. How did the situation of the Empire change after the Second World War? 13. What is HM Bark Endeavor? 14. Who was Joseph Banks? What is told in your travel diary? 1. The British Empire was the largest empire in history comprising dominions, colonies, protectorates, and other territories governed or administered by the United Kingdom. 2. It lasted from the end of the 16th century to the mid-20th century. 3. It covered a quarter of the world's territory and its population was a fifth of that of the world. The colonies were India, the Caribbean, North America, Southeast Asian Pacific Islands (Singapore and Hong Kong), Middle East, Africa (Egypt, Sudan, and Zimbabwe). 4. The cause of its decline was the political situation after the Second World War. 5. The East India Company was intended to break Dutch control over the East India spice trade. 6. Triangular trade was an exchange of goods between Europe, Africa, and America. Within the triangular trade, slaves were sold by African states to Western European merchants and deported by the latter to the American continent to work in the plantations of products that were shipped to Europe and this system took the name of transatlantic trade of slaves. 7. The Empire lost control of much of the American territory because the colonies rebelled, and the United States of America was born. 8. James Cook was an English admiral engaged in various expeditions for the Royal Society from 1768 to 1771. 9. He discovered New Zealand, the strait that bears his name, the eastern coasts of Australia with Botany Bay, which served as a base for trade with China and Japan. Recall that at the time Australia was a terra incognita. Then, he sailed across the Pacific and discovered the Cook Islands and today's Hawaii, which he called Sandwich. 10. India which was called the pearl of the Empire. 11. The Second British Empire, on the other hand, is the one that extended from the 18th century to the 20th century, in which Great Britain controlled the lands of every continent in existence. During this period, imperialism and the race for Africa spread in the logic of the "social Darwinist" of white race and superiority. 12. The Second World War saw the beginning of the imperial decline due to the successive rebellions of the colonial population and the processes of decolonization. 13. The HM Bark Endeavor was the ship with which Cook made his first voyage of exploration to Australia and New Zealand. 14. Joseph Banks was a member of the British Scientific Association of the Royal Society who during his travels wrote a diary in which he recounted everything he saw. It tells of the meeting between the crew and the inhabitants of Botany Bay. Unit nine - Money and Banks: The wealth of nations (1776) by Adam Smith The history of money including coins and paper, is very ancient (eincent). In the 4th century BC. it was probably invented by the Chinese and, at the same time, in ancient Greece, instead of bartering. The importance of money grew thanks to the birth of banks that allowed to increase or decrease the supply of money and control the financial resources of the state. The first banks were born in the 13th century but spread until the 17th centuries and were deposits for coins and, when money was to be used of payment, the currency was physically transferred to the creditor. Later, the system based on payment with banknotes spread, attesting the possession of the metal in deposit, and in every country were born the central banks tant regulated the payments. The Bank of England was born in 1694 and was based on the deposit system. Then, in 1855, the first real banknotes came to be printed. The first modern monetary system was the Gold Standard based on the value of gold that was the standard model for the convertibility (cònvèrtbility), but it went into crisis after the First World War due to the financial crisis. After the Second World War almost all the European countries included in the European Community decided to adopt a common monetary and economic system called the “Economic and monetary union of the European Union” (EMU). The project was divided into three steps: 1. Coordinate of the various economic policies of all member states  birth of the Maastricht Treaty (1993). 2. Preparation of projects for the creation of a single currency  birth of the European Central Bank in Frankfurt (1998). 3. Birth of the euro (1999)  the common coin. Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher and economist in the 18th century. He contributed (contrìbutid) to the development of the economic theories of the century with the idea that a country was strong only if was rich. His most famous work is "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) with the aim to divide political economy from science, philosophy, and jurisprudence (jurisprùdens) and analyzing all the elements of a country's wealth. The work is divided into five books: 1. Book I  describes the causes of natural improvement and distribution. 2. Book II  describes the stock of capital, which regulates the proportion of useful workers. 3. Book III  describes the causes that led Europe to invest in city industry and not in agriculture. 4. Book IV  describes the origin of the various political theories. 5. Book V  describes the shopping (income and expenses) and debts of the sovereign. The introduction describes the work plan in several points:  The production of the annual work gives the annual expenditure.  The relationship between production and expenditure is based on the skill of the workers.  There are more useful and less useful workers. Glossary  To adopt  adottare.  Barter system sistema del baratto.  Coin  moneta.  Stock of capital  stock del capitale.  Loan  prestito.  Supply  fornitura.  Coinage  monetazione.  Acient  antico. Comprehension 1. When was money invented? 2. When were the banks born? What were they for? 3. When was the Bank of England born? 4. What was the first modern monetary system called? 5. What happened after the Second World War? 6. Who is Adam Smith? 7. What is “The Wealth of Nations” about? 1. In the 4th century BC it was probably invented by the Chinese and, in the same period, its coinage was born in Ancient Greece, replacing the barter system. 2. Banks were deposits of money that allowed the supply of money to be increased or decreased and the financial resources of the state controlled. The first banks were born between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries and were deposits for coins and, when money was used as a means of payment, the currency was physically transferred to the creditor. Later the loans began to be based on the paper banknote system, which attested to possession of the metal in the deposit. 3. The Bank of England was born in 1694. 4. The first modern monetary system was the Gold Standard in which the monetary base is given by a standard quantity of gold. 5. After the Second World War, almost all the European countries included in the European Community decided to adopt a common monetary and economic system called the “Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union” (EMU). 6. Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher and economist in the 18th century. He contributed to the development of the economic theories of the century with the idea that the richer a country was, the stronger it was. 7. His most famous work is "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) which separates political economy from science, philosophy, and jurisprudence, and analyzes all the elements of a country's wealth. Unit eleven – Charles Darwin and natural selection: The origin of species (1859) by Charles Darwin Charles Darwin was a famous British biologist of the 19th century, famous for having developed (develòpd) the theory of natural selection, based on the principle of evolution of animal and plant species. Most of his research took place during a round-the-world voyage on the HMS Beagle ship, particularly while stopping at the Galápagos Islands. The trip was encouraged by Jhon Henslow, his biology professor at Cambridge University. Then, Darwin’s idea of natural selection was influenced by the theories of economist Thomas Malthus who thought that the population increased more than the resources (food, water, money) and, therefore, a struggle between for survival was inevitable. Another great influence for Darwin's work was offered by the geological theories of Charles Lyell who thought the world was much older than the Bible said, so Darwin thought that all of nature had evolved over time through the natural selection of the species. His most important work is "The origins of the species" published in 1859 with the aim to understand how took place the natural selection. In the introduction Darwin explains how his work was born and some considerations he arrived at during his studies. He says that while traveling aboard the HMS Beagle as a naturalist, he was very impressed by some facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relationships of the present with the inhabitants of the past of that continent and, for this reason, he has decided to write a work on the subject in five years. Darwin says his work is not a law but are only general conclusions which he arrived at after observation and comparison with senior naturalists, which of them also think that no species have been created independent, but that all are descended from other species and that the relationship between species is important because it determines the welfare of all. Finally, Darwin believes that Natural Selection is the means of modifying species but that it is not the only one that exists. The work was criticized (critisaisd) by the Church. Glossary  Earth terra.  Collected  raccolto. Comprehension 1. Who Was Charles Darwin? 2. What is the theory of natural selection? 3. Who and what was it influenced by? 4. What is your most important work? What does he say? 1. Charles Darwin was a British biologist, naturalist famous for having developed the theory of the evolution of animal and plant species by natural selection. 2. The theory holds that all living things derive from other species that have evolved over time. It is also based on the law of the strongest, that is, in moments of crisis only those who can adapt survive, while the rest die. 3. Darwin's idea of natural selection was influenced by the theories of economist Thomas Malthus and by the geological theories of Charles Lyell. 4. His most important work is "The origins of the species" published in 1859 which aimed to understand how natural selection between species took place. Unit twelve – Utilitarianism (Yutalitarianism): Utilitarianism (1861) by Jhon Stuart Mill Utilitarianism is an English philosophical and moral doctrine that developed between the 18th and 19th centuries. It is based on the principle of happiness or the principle of utility, which thought that the highest good is the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Therefore, they want to overcome the limits of selfishness and profit. Furthermore, all utilitarianism is based on two key principles, pain, and pleasure (plesgia). The main exponents of the theory were: 1. Jeremy Bentham  was an English lawyer considered the founder of consequentialism. According to his theory, human nature was based on the principles of pain and pleasure and all actions are either morally right or wrong, based on how much happiness and how much it produces. So, the correctness of an action depends on the value of its consequences. 2. Jhon Stuart Mill  was an English historian and economist. His theories have been expressed in many treatises in which he says that economic growth had to be sacrificed (sacrifaist) for the well-being of the environment, but that population growth had to be limited to reduce poverty. He did not like socialism, but he believed in the system of trade unions and union between workers, so he supported the women's suffragist movements, believing was a just point. Furthermore, he believed in the strength of the individual but only together with self-control, which guarantee people's happiness. Bentham's followers formed a group called Radical Philosophers, who talks about social reform and human lows. One of Mill's most important works was "Utilitarianism", published in 1861 in three articles, then printed in a single work in 1863. The aim of the work was to explain what utilitarianism was and to demonstrate why it was the best ethic theory. The second chapter of the book is called "What is utilitarianism" and talks about the normative principle according to which actions are right only in proportion to the happiness they generate and are wrong in relation to the pain they cause. Glossary  To overcome  superare.  To suffer  soffrire.  Selfisheness egoismo.  Pain  dolore.  Pleasure piacere.  Essay saggio. Comprehension 1. What is utilitarianism? 2. What principles is it based on? 3. Who were the greatest exponents of utilitarianism? 4. What did Jhon Stuart Mill think? 5. Who were the radical philosophers? 6. What work of Mill is remembered? What does he say? 1. Utilitarianism is an English philosophical moral doctrine that developed between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 2. It is based on the principle of happiness or the principle of utility, which argue that the highest good is the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people and is based on two key principles, pain, and pleasure. 3. The three main exponents of the theory were Jeremy Bentham and Jhon Stuart Mill. 4. He thought that economic growth had to be sacrificed for the welfare of the environment, but that population growth had to be limited to reduce poverty. Furthermore, he believed in the strength of the individual but only together with self- control, which could guarantee people's happiness. 5. A group of Benthamian philosophers who influenced the ethical discussion among scholars in the perspective of social reform and human legislation. 6. "Utilitarianism", an essay published in 1861 in three articles and printed in a single work in 1863. In which the aim was to explain what utilitarianism was and to demonstrate why it was the best theory of ethics. Unit fourteen– The new history In recent decades, Historical studies changed in opposition to the traditional paradigm. So, were born two different stories, an old story and a new story which are different in many aspects. Firstly, the old history is based on politics and the state, instead, the new history includes almost all human aspects and activities, coming to be known as total history. Secondly, the old history tends to concentrate more on chronology and single events, instead, the new history tends to concentrate on themes, to analyses the total structures. Thirdly, many historians have started to investigate the views of ordinary people and how their lives are affected by social change, and this analysis is called history form below or populist history, because contrasts with the traditional approach based of history form above or elitist history which tented to focus his attention on the actions of single individual like kings, politicians, leaders, or presidents. This has led to a great search for opposing point of view, discussions, and debates. For this reason, were born a new manners and methods to critic and analyses the sources for historians, like statistical evidence, visual material, oral data, or the microhistory (maicrohistory) that use thick description or the study of single e events through the intensive analysis of a great number of facts to bring to light larger cultural implication. However, there was also some criticism to the new history. One of the strongest protests is against the fragmenting of the discipline, or the exclusion of the main individuals who influenced the history. Glossary  To treat  trattare.  Below sotto.  Rather piuttosto.  Manner maniera.  Elitist elitario.  Thick  di spessore. Comprehension 1. How have historical studies changed in recent decades? 2. What are the old and the new history? 3. What are the new methods of historical investigation? 4. What do the critics say about the new story? 1. The historical discipline has expanded as new branches have formed, largely in opposition to the traditional paradigm. 2. The old story is the elitist one, while the new story is the populist one. The first is based on politics and the state, focuses on chronology and individual events, and focuses its attention on the actions of individuals such as kings, politicians, leaders, or presidents. The second includes almost all human activities, analyzes overall structures, and investigates the opinions of ordinary people and how their lives are affected by social change. 3. Statistical evidence, visual material, oral data, or microhistory that use the description or study of single events through the intensive analysis of many facts to bring to light a wider cultural implication. 4. They think populist history fragments discipline and makes it lose because they exclude those individuals whose achievements influenced the story. Unit fifteen – Moral question All men are moral beings because every day they must make choices that they cannot avoid. Depending on the type of choice, human beings have created systems of moral principles, the themes expressed in religion and philosophy, which are intended to help them make the rights choices. In this way we also have the difference between right moral actions and wrong moral actions, and the general rules for living well in society. Over time men have asked himself if these principles are absolute, so imposed by some higher force, or if they were created by society itself at its birth. Sometimes moral problems arise when the state tries to impose its control on society and this is evident in relation to some important issues (iscius) such as abortion, euthanasia, the environmental issue, or experiments on animals. Glossary  To avoid  evitare.  To arise  sorgere. Comprehension 1. Why are men moral subjects? 2. What is a moral system? 3. What may be some moral problems? 1. Because every day they must make choices that they cannot evade. 2. It is a system created by society to distinguish the right choices from the wrong choices and to help man make decisions. They are usually expressed in philosophy and religion. 3. Abortion, euthanasia, the environmental issue, or animal experiments. Further reading Novum Organum (1620) – Francis Bacon Francis Bacon was an English philosopher and politician who lived between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century at the English court, under the reign of Elizabeth I Tudor and James I Stuart. He studied law and supported the scientific revolution through the method based on human experience and action, thinking that the human being was born without anything innate from the cognitive point of view. One of his most famous works is "Novum Organum" written in 1620, which proposes a new logic of the scientific method, against the old logic of Aristotle. According to Bacon, science must serve man, but to dominate nature it is necessary to know its laws and, therefore, to obey them. To do this man needs experiments because his senses and experience are not enough. Glossary  To obey  obbedire. Comprehension 1. Who was Francis Bacon? 2. What did he claim? 3. What is your most important work? What is it about? 1. He was an English philosopher and politician who lived between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century at the English court. 2. He supported the scientific revolution through the method based on human experience and action, thinking that the human being was born without anything innate from a cognitive point of view. 3. His most famous work is “Novum Organum” written in 1620, which proposes a new logic of the scientific method, against the old logic of Aristotle. The great fire of London – John Evelyn In fact, the philosopher describes the human mind from birth as a tabula rasa which, thanks to experience, is filled. Experiences can be internal or external and are made up of simple ideas and difficult ideas. The essay is divided into four books. The second is called "On ideas" and chapter I "On ideas in general and their origin" and describes Locke's theory of ideas, according to each idea derives from experience, through sensations and reflections. Glossary  To fill riempire. Comprehension 1. What is John Locke's “Essay on Human Intellect” about? 2. How is the work structured? 1. The "Essay on the human intellect" (1690) is a work of the British philosopher John Locke with the aim of establishing the principles of modern empiricism, in support of experience and in contrast with the innate principle of ideas. 2. The essay is divided into four books. The second is called "on ideas" and chapter I "on ideas in general and their origin" and describes Locke's theory of ideas, according to which every idea derives from experience, through sensations and reflections. The education of women (1719) – Daniel Defoe (Defou) At the end of the 17th century the education system was still tied to the Church because the parishes were responsible for spreading education through religion. There were grammar schools and charity schools that were meant to promote Christian knowledge, where Bible reading was part of the curriculum. Education was primarily reserved for males from wealthy families, as many believed that educating a woman would not be a good idea. The women, in fact, were instructed to be mothers and housewives, and they took care of the first phase of the children's education. Therefore, they were excluded from schools and universities. Daniel Defoe was a British writer and journalist who lived between the 17th and 18th centuries who is considered as the father of the English novel, because he wrote periodicals, newspapers, magazines, and short novels including "The life and the strange, surprising adventures of Robinson Crusoe” (1719), often considered the first English novel. He also wrote an important essay called "The education of women" (1719) in which he argued that women should been have an education and that education should have equal to that of men because, according to him, God created us perfectly alike and it is not right that women are penalized. The author believes that the difference between men and women was in education, but he is convinced that women should be educated to better serve men, so in reality he does not care about the individual rights of women. Furthermore, he thinks that if a woman is deprived of an education, she can become violent and nasty, because she is kept in a cage and is not given room to express her skills and, therefore, cannot be a good companion (companion) for her husband. Glossary  To take care  essere attenti.  To tie  legare.  To deprive  privare.  Housewife  casalinga.  Cage  gabbia.  Alike  allo stesso modo.  Nasty  cattiva. Comprehension 1. What was the education system like in the modern age? 2. Why were women not allowed to study? 3. Who was Daniel Defoe? What did you write important? 4. What is the essay "The education of women" about? 1. The education system was still tied to the Church because the parishes were responsible for the dissemination of education through religion. 2. Because education was reserved for males from rich families, because many believed that educating a woman would not be a good idea, as they were educated to be mothers and housewives, and took care of the first stage of raising children. Therefore, they were excluded from schools and universities. 3. Daniel Defoe was a British writer and journalist who lived between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who comes as the father of the English novel, He wrote "The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe" (1719), often considered the first English novel. 4. It is an essay written by Daniel Defoe in 1719 in which the right of female education is defended and argued. My own story (1914) – Emmeline Pankhurst (Pankhst) Emmeline Pankhurst was a British activist and politician who led the UK suffragist movement, helping women gain the right to vote in 1928. At the time, in fact, women in Britain were treated (trited) as a domestic class and, for this reason, Emmeline Pankhurst founded the militant organization of the "Women's Social and Political Union" (WSPU) in 1903 together with her daughters with the aim to solve the problem. The controversy was against the omnipotent hostile government which did not guarantee women political rights. The weapons used by the organization were extreme:  Church or building fires.  Raids in institutional offices.  Sabotage of telephone lines.  Attacks on politicians and policemen.  Refusal to pay taxes to the state.  Hunger strikes. For this reason, many suffragettes, including Pankhurst herself, suffered arrests and violence. The movement was made up of both working women and the ladies of the aristocracy and well- educated elite, but all had one purpose, which was to obtain political and civil rights. The book "My own Story" (1914) is an autobiography that tells the first steps and the story of the movement for British suffrage around 1900 until the beginning of the First World War, when activists decided to temporarily lay down their arms due to the conflict. In the opening chapters, Pankhurst offers the reader a quick overview of her education and marriage, but only to illustrate where he came from and why she decided to pursue politics. After this introduction, the book talks about history of the WSPU and its members. Next, she focuses on describing his initially non-violent actions against the government. It also clarifies the prison experience, as she has been arrested many times, as terrible and cruel. Finally, some elements are highlighted such as the protagonist's thought, her courage, her moral perspective, achievements, and failures. Pankhurst’s legacy is disputed, as some argue that his militancy was too extreme and undermined the movement, others the opposite. Glossary  To suffer soffrire.  To gain  guadagnare / ottenere.  To lay down  stendersi.  To decrease  diminuire.  To increase  incrementare.  To pursue  perseguire.  To clarify  chiarire.  Raid irruzione.  Refusal rifiuto.  Hunger strikes  sciopero della fame.  Failure  fallimento.  Archievement realizzazione.  Overview  panoramica.  Legacy  eredità.  All-powerful  onnipotente.  Constantly costantemente.  Hostile ostile. Comprehension 1. Who was Emmeline Pankhurst? 2. What did he do that was important? 3. What is your book "My Story" about? 1. Emmeline Pankhurst was a British activist and politician who led the UK suffragist movement, helping women gain the right to vote in 1928. 2. In 1903 she founded the "Women's Social and Political Union" (WSPU) together with her daughters, a militant organization against the all-powerful and constantly hostile government that did not guarantee women political rights. The weapons used by the organization were extreme. 3. The book "My own Story" (1914) is an autobiography that tells the first steps and the story of the movement for British suffrage around 1900 until the beginning of the First World War  The Viking invasion --> Vikings were a tribe of Nordic people and with the invasions Old English got mixed up with Old Norse, the language of the Viking tribes. Old Norse ended up giving English more than 2,000 new words.  The Norman Invasion --> it was called the French period because the Norman invasion established French as the language of royals and of power., even if Old English was continued to develop and grow by adopting a whole series of Latin and French words. Modern english (1500 – Present) The period can be divided into: 1. Early Modern English (1500 – 1800)  In the 14th -15th century, following the Hundred Years War with France that ended French rule of the British Isles, English became the language of power and influence once again. Then, it got a further boost through the development of English literature and English culture by William Shakespeare. The man is said to have invented at least 1,700 words. From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world and, unit the Renaissance of Classical learning, many new words and phrases entered the language. An important innovation was the invention of printing, that meant there was olso now a common language in print and in the books. Infact, books became cheaper and more people learned to read, and printing brought standardization to English. Then, spelling and grammar became standard, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. Finally, in the 1604 the first English dictionary was published. 2. Last Modern English (1800 – Present)  The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors, first the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words, secondly the English-speaking world was at the center of a lot of scientific progress that went together with the evolution of the language. American English Starting around 1600, the English colonization of North America led to the creation of a distinct American variety of English. Some expressions that the British call "Americanisms" are original British expressions that were kept in the colonies. Spanish also had an influence on American English and later British English with words, which entered English through the settlement of the American West. French and West African words through the slave trade also influenced American English and thus, to some extent, British English. Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA dominance of film, television, popular music, commerce, and technology, but there are many other varieties of English around the world, including Australian English, English New Zealand, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English, and Caribbean English. Glossary  To push soffrire.  To ransack  soffrire.  To mixed up  soffrire.  To ended up  To arising  sorgere.  To stantardize  standardizzare.  Peasant  contadino.  Host ospite.  Further boost  ulteriore spinta.  Norse  norvegese.  Wide largo. Comprehension 1. When did the history of the English language begin? 2. What is Old English? Who was it spoken by? 3. What is Average English? 4. Who were the Vikings? 5. What happened during the French period? 6. What is Modern English? 7. What is American English? 1. The history of the English language began with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what is now Denmark and Northern Germany. 2. The language of the Celtic tribes that inhabited Great Britain and goes from 450 to 1100. 3. Middle English is the history of the English language from 1110 to 1500. It is divided into two periods, the first concerning the Viking invasion and the second concerning the Norman invasion. 4. They were a tribe of Norse peoples who plundered their way through the north and northwest, and with the invasions, Old English became confused with Old Norse, the language of the Viking tribes. Old Norse ended up giving English more than 2,000 new words. 5. It is the period of the Norman invasion of England and is so defined because it established French as the language of royalty and power. 6. Modern English is the history of the English language from 1500 to the present. It is divided into two periods, the first called Old Modern English (1500 - 1800) and the second Last Modern English (1800 - Present). 7. American English is the version of English spoken in the United States of America, where about two thirds of native English speakers live. The English language was introduced to the United States by the British colonization.