Functional Grammar - Linguistica Inglese 1, Appunti di Linguistica Inglese

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FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR It’s a specific area of systemic functional linguistics Focused on: ➢ grammatical structures ➢ language in use, contextual meaning → language always need a context → it tells us something abut the language It’s functional and descriptive → a descriptive grammar based on empirical research (not only strict rules) → the objects of study are real text from real world THE AXIAL RETHINK – main features of SFL 1) ANTI-STRUCTURALISM: semiotic functions drive linguistic structures → our aim is to describe the functions laid by structures 2) ANTI-FORMALISM: language is choice-based 3) PRO-CONTEXTUALISM: context is really important, it has an influence on language 4) TEXT/COMMUNICATION-CENTRISM: the object of study is the text used by people to interact → unitive language that has a meaning 5) PRO-APPLICATIONISM: it always can be applied 6) MULTI-PERSPECTIVISM: it tries to explain real problems in language theory DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL GRAMMAR FUNTIONAL GRAMMAR Primary concern sructure Meanings → we arrive to it trough the structures Unit of analysis sentence whole text (thah has to be divided in part) Languace concern syntax Semantics (study of meanings) Language is a set of rules for sentence construction a resource for meaning making CONTEXT It impacts on the way we use language • Context of cultures: traditions, cultural identity, rules we have to follow, values system, western culture etc. Ex: the way the relationship between teacher and students change according to the country/culture influences the way they speak • Context of situation: here and now of communication Each context of situation can be defined trough 3 variables: 1) FIELD: what’s going on? - social activities -subject matter Those elements concern the language we use because we can use specific nouns according to the subject Es: during a science lesson we use specialized words, not used during an informal chat 2) TENOR: who’s taking part in the conversation? The interlocutors can have different -social roles (teacher, students) → it takes time to change -discourse roles (speaker, dresser) → it can change easily How it impacts on the language? We use: - formal and informal terms -more or less direct -politeness (according to the social roles) -declaratives ore questions (according to the discourse roles It’s always a question of choice Es: I can choose not to use an interrogative form to formulate a question like “I would like to know who did this” 3) MODE: how’s language been used? -channel (oral, written) -spontaneous or prepared speech SEMANTICS = study of functions/meanings 1) IDEATIONAL FUNCTION or META-FUNCTION: language can be used to describe real experiences (like objects or emotions) → language construe experiences (to give linguistic form of something) 2)INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION: language is used to create/destroy social relationships 3)TEXTUAL FUNCTION (it goes trough point 1,2): we can do 1) and 2) because we are able to create coherent texts SYSTEMS of options (involved in point 1,2,3 of semantics and context) 1) TRANSITIVITY and CLAUSES IN COMBINATION 2) MOOD, MODALITY, APPRAISAL 3) STRUCTURAL and NON-STRUCTURAL COHESION We can have different kind of SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS: 1. Field -> ideational function -> TRANSITIVITY (what’s going on?) Clause (=proposizone, frase semplice) as rappresentation of experience/reality Different from “sentence” = unit of writing, it can be made of more clauses. It starts with a capital letter and ends with a dot. Es: “Harry’s scar was almost blinding him with pain”  VERB – “was almost blinding”  it represent actions, processes There are two main kind of experiences: 1) the ones belonging to physical actions (hit, hug, take) -> material processes 2 )the ones related to inner world, emotions -> mental processes  ACTOR – “Harry’s scar”  It’s the doer of the action  GOAL – “him”  the passive element  CIRCURMSTANCES – “with pain”  additional information 2. Tenor -> interpersonal function -> MOOD (who’s taking part?) Clause as exchange  SUBJECT – “Harry’s scar”  it’s the element having agreement with the verb. It’s the element on which the clause is valid. It’s different from the doer of the action -> interpersonal CONFLATION (sovrapposizione di funzioni) : different functions laid by the same elemente actor = subject 3. Mode -> textual function -> STRUCTURAL COHESION (how does the text hang together?) Clause as message  THEME – “Harry’s scar”  starting point, both the reader and the writer know about it 3. relational processes  about relations that we construct. (es. “the LILEC departement is in via cartoleria”) 4. behavioural processes  rapresents an activity which is partly material and mental -cry it’s not the same as “touch” or “think”: tears are a phisical component, but the reason why you cry is mental 5. verbal processes  processes of saying; between mental and relational processes: we communicate something that comes from our mind 6. existential processes  processes that tell us that something that something exist -there is/there are MATERIAL PROCESSES - phisical processes of doing and happening; it’s default transitivity category I first look at the VG  dipending on the process we have different kind of participants Participants  the actor (the active participant) + goal (the passive participant) PP “in front of their houses”  circumstance of place Remember: ”of their houses” is an embedded pp “Rubbish is left by people in front..”  participant can be realized by a PP (like “by people”: it still remain the actor, but it’s not a NG) Remember: we can decide not to explicit the doer of the action by simply turn the phrase into passive A range it’s not really effected by the action as the goal is, it completes the meaning of the process Sub-category: o creative material process: bring goals into existence o transformative material process: are done to existing goals  intentional material process  involuntary material process: the actor often seems like a goal (in fact there is NO goal) Remember: actor may not be explicit (like in the passive clauses); even the goal may also be understood but not expressed (es. He’s smoking)  The most natural present tense is the continuous form A material process clause may include an attribute  express the state in which the Actor/Goal ends up as a result of the process. MENTAL PROCESSES - express thoughts or feeling Typically they have only animate participants as doers; when the doer is unanimated we have a personification, a metaphorical rappresentation of the object as a human beeing The senser  the one who feels The phenomenon  the element that is perceived; it may be a fact, a clause treated like a thing Sub-category: o perceptive mental process (seeing, hearing etc.) o emotive mental process (feeling, like/hate etc.): the thing you like is usually a Phenomenon, even if it’s expressed as a clause (a fact clause) o cognitive mental process (deciding, knowing, understanding etc.) most common to project clauses o desiderative mental process (wanting) Some mental processes are reversible  it’s equally possible to have the subject role filled either by the senser or by the phenomenon Projective clause  projected by the mental process; mental and verbal processes can project other clauses  The most natural present tense id the simple form VERBAL PROCESSES - express what is said The sayer  the doer of the action The receiver  to whom the saying is addressed; it often appears in PP Es. “Simon tells Craig his story” -> the receiver (Craig) is a NG “You cannot talk to a strangers” -> receiver (to a stranger) is a PP They’re both typically humans Target  when the verbal process is directed at another participant, called target It doesn’t have to be human and it can be different from the receiver Only with verbal processes to do wuth saying god/bad things about sb/st Verbiage the topic/object/content of what is said, the message itself Matter  category of Circumstance, used to label a summary of the message when it’s given in a PP es. He thanked her for the tea Remember: verbal processed can project other clauses  projected clauses; the process and the participant of those clauses are analysed separately. EXISTENTIAL PROCESSES - express existence: there is/are/was/were Existent  the thing that exist, that “there is” Remembere: there has not any function in transitivity BEHAVIOURAL PROCESSES - indicate psychological and physiological activity They tipically have only one participant Behaver  the doer of the action Sometimes there’s also another “participant”, the behaviour  adds specifications to the processe es. The boy laughed a high, embarrassed laugh Usually verbs like cry, cough, sneeze, smile, etc. RELATIONAL PROCESSES - express states of being and having This process is usually used to describe. 1) Es. “It was an old, condamned house that...”  ATTRIBUTIVE relational process “It” is the carrier  the one who carries the quality “an old, condamned house that..” is the attribute 2) Es. “London is the place for you”  IDENTIFYING relational process “London” is the identifier (or token)  the one who represent something “the place for you” is the identified (or value) Remember: this process is reversible, if you switch “London” and “the place for you” the sentence keep its meaning According to the verb, the relational processes can be:  INTENSIVE  X is Y “It was an old, condamned house” – attributive “London is the place for you” – idenetifying  POSSESSIVE  X has Y “Simone had a typical London garden” – attributive “The garden was Simon’s” – identifying  CIRCUMSTANTIAL  X is in, on, after, besides.. Y “Everyone is in a rush” – attributive “Right besides the front entrance is where the garbage gets put” – identifying What is an OBLIQUE PARTICIPANT? They have an intermediate status in term of their closeness to the central meaning of the clause (between central participants and circumstances) o The beneficiary (includes receiver)  indirect object; specially with verbal and material processes. In the material processes it can be distinguished in recipient (whit to) or client (with for) es. I bought them computer games (=I bought computer games for them) o The scope (with material processes)  objects that are NOT affected by the process (it’s not done to them, but involves them in a way) The scope is NOT a participant (but it has the potential to becoming subject in passive clauses) “She first swam the Channel in 1985” -> scope entity: indicates the domain (ambito) over which the processes takes place; it’s a circumstantial element in that is specified an aspect of the process “She’s given birth to twins” -> scope process: the “objects” are an extension of the verb; it’s a NG that works together with the verb to express the process CIRCUMSTANCES They’re realized by circumstantial adjunct and they encode the background against which the process takes place There are 9 main types of circumstantial elements:  Place and time  both can be seen in term of location (where or when?) and extent (how far or how long/often?)  Manner (how?)  includes quality (in what way? -ly adv.), means (with what/by what means?), comparison (what...like?), degree (how much?)  Cause  includes reason (why?), purpose (what for?), behalf (who for?)  Contingency  includes condition (circumstances in which the process occur) and concession (expresses a circumstance that might have led to a particular outcome but did not)  Accompaniment (who/what with?)  Role  fall into guise group (what as?) and product (what into?)  Matter (what about?)  Angle (from what point of view? realized by according to/to) They frequently seem to combine different meanings + frequent use in metaphorical meanings SUBJECT AND FINITE COMBINE TO MAKE THE MOOD OF THE CALUSE and their order/presence is the grammatical marker of the mood type (declarative, interrogative, imperative) They also have a vital role in carrying out the interpersonal functions of the clause as exchange  MODAL ADJUNCTS are divided in: o Mood adjunct : related to the Finite, they express meanings associated with tense, polarity and modality They represent possibility, usuality, willingness, temporality, typicality (es. probably, usually..) o Comment adjunct : comment on the whole clause, they can be moved much more easily (hopefully, of course, to be honest..) Remember: modal adjuncts are included in the MOOD CONJUNCTIVE ADJUNCTS or discourse markers  they have the function of signalling how the clause as a whole fits in with the preceding text (textual meaning) es. on the other hand The RESIDUE is the reminder of the clause, the part of the clause left after the Mood Block has been identified. It includes:  Predicator  the rest of the VG (apart from the Finite) The Predicator itself is non-finite  Complement (simile al complemento oggetto/predicativi in italiano)  element that has the potential to be the subject but it’s not; any NG (and only this!) not functioning as subject es. People have attacked you -> you has the potential to become subject (in passive clause) es. It will be magnificent  Circumstantial adjunct  typically realized by an AG or a PP (like circumstantial in transitivity) es. Please don’t stand in front of this poster One of the main purpose of communicating is to interact  having a purpose for saying things to other people These purposes can be unlimited, but according to the main ones there are 4 SPEECH FUNCTIONS: o giving and demanding information: language has a constitutive function (does all of the work in the exchange)  statements and questions o giving and demanding goods-&-services: language has ancillary function (helps the success of the exchange but need a non-verbal action to succeed)  offer and command Those function are associated with form, particular grammatical structures, except for the offers (can be carried out without using language); this does NOT always happen (for example I can have an interrogative as a command) Remember: only independent clauses have a choice of mood, only them express the speech roles INDICATIVE MOOD DECLARATIVE MOOD  indicative declarative clauses typically function to give information The order indicates the Mood type: subject – finite es. That [subject]” can [finite]” have [predicator]” a huge different [complement]” In a declarative clause the speaker introduces an entity (Subject) about which he wants to make certain claim; then he indicates the kind and degree of validity of the claim he’s going to make in the Finite (through tense, polarity, modality); then makes the claim in the rest of the clause INTERROGATIVE MOOD  typically used to ask information + to ask to do something (can you..? shall we..?) There are different types of interrogatives: o yes/no interrogative: what I’m looking for is polarity; the order is finite – subject o wh- interrogative: when the wh- word is the subject the order is subject – finite when the wh- word is NOT the subject the order is finite – subject EXCLAMATIVE MOOD  the order is subject – finite IMPERATIVE MOOD Typically function to demand goods/since or to enact comands Remember: NEVER conflation o UNMARKED (standard)  the Mood block is missing The Subject is NOT specified since it can be only you Most of the functions of the Finite are irrelevant: a command is absolute (no modality), no need to specify time (no tense, always future fro an action not yet carried out) The Finite may appear only to signal negative polarity: o MARKED FOR NEGATIVE POLARITY  the Finite is present (but it doesn’t have all its functions) es. Please don’t stand in front of this poster o MARKED FOR POSITIVE POLARITY  the Finite is present es. Do wear sustainable clothes o MARKED FOR PERSON  the Subject is present es. Don’t you stand in front of that poster! Attention: let’s is considered Subject in suggestive imperative STRUCTURAL COHESION Mode – Textual meaning – Clause as message  THEME  topic, always at the beginning  RHEME  what’s left after the Theme, new info about it THEME in DECLARATIVE CLAUSES  it’s the first element on the clause having a function in transitivity; always at the beginning ; also called TOPICAL theme (TT) It can be only one element between: o participant o process o circumstance It can be:  unmarked (standard, the most typical)  conflation of Doer + Subject + TT  marked (less typical)  1) NO conflation with either Doer or Subject 2) conflation with Subject but NOT with Doer Remember: when TT is preceded by other elements NOT having function in transitivity  THEMATIC theme (NOT topical); the thematic theme is optional (while the TT is compulsory) THEME in INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES  unmarked in polar interrogatives (YES/NO) FULL THEME (thematic theme + TT)  it includes the Finite (in Mood) + Participant (in Transitivity) es. Did [finite/thematic] the Dormouse [sayer/TT] tell them a story? -> did + the dormouse = full theme Attention: BE/HAVE are particular, even if they have a function in transitivity I have to consider them with the TT (full theme)  unmarked in WH- interrogatives  the TT is the WH- element (it has a function in transitivity; it is an interrogative particles that ask about participants and circumstantial info) es. But [conjunction/thematic] why [circumst./TT] did they leave? es. Who [actor/TT] ’s making personal remarks?  marked in interrogatives  the TT is usually a Circumstance es. During the tea party [circumstance/TT], was the dormouse asleep? es. In chapter VII [circumstance/TT], what does Alice do? THEME in EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSES The TT is the WH- word followed by the group (NG, AdvG), called focus es. What a nice lady [TT]” Alice is! THEME in IMPERATIVE CLAUSES  unmarked - positive  the TT is the Process es. Tell [TT] us a story - negative  the Full Theme includes Finite + Process es. Don’t tell [full theme] us nothing  marked  the Process is moved to the Rheme because there can’t be more than one transitivity element in the TT es. Don’t you [Finite + TT, full theme] cry es. In a small saucepan [circumstance/TT] combine the ingredients es. You [TT] listen to Greta! Interpersonal and textual Theme: the Thematic Theme can be Interpersonal or Textual INTERPERSONAL THEME It can be realized by: o modal adjuncts (both modal or comment) o vocatives : typically a proper name used to address someone (es. Doctor, honey, mum) Remember: in unmarked polar interrogatives the Finite is the Interpersonal theme; in unmarked wh- interrogatives the wh- element is both TT and Interpersonal theme TEXTUAL THEME It can be realized by: o conjunctions o conjunctive adjuncts : used to combine different sentences; can be moved freely o continuatives : words which signals a move in the discourse (es. well, ehm, so, yes/no) Example: Well, but then, surely, Jean, wouldn’t the best idea be a party? RHEM E Interpersonal theme (vocative)Textual theme (continuative) TTTextual theme (conjunctive adj.) Interpersonal theme (Finite)Textual theme (conjunction) Interpersonal theme