Post-World War II International Relations and Cold War: 1945-1992 - Prof. Bentivoglio, Schemi e mappe concettuali di Storia Delle Relazioni Internazionali

Scarica Post-World War II International Relations and Cold War: 1945-1992 - Prof. Bentivoglio e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Storia Delle Relazioni Internazionali solo su Docsity! SUMMARY ⟶ HISTORYOF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS REBUILDING EUROPE- End ofWW2: victors remake the world according to their own belief. Vanquished: - Germany: unconditional surrender, disappeared from maps, occupied by allies and divided but administered as a whole - Japan: nuked by USA but not dissolved Victors: - USA: atomic bombs, far away, economy grew stronger during war, isolationism, cash&carry - UK: bankruptcy, loans, food rationings - USSR: weak economy and security⟶ heavy control - FR: divided after German occupation (north = Vichy; south = resistance of DeGaule) ⤷ Potsdam conference: ask Japan to surrender ⤷ Treaty of Brussels: UK + FR + BE +NE + LUX ⤷ Paris peace conference: settle territories and concessions: - Italy: lost Dodecanese, Albania, part of Yugoslavia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Libya; it kept Trieste - Romania: lost Bessarabia e Bucovina to USSR - Bulgaria: lost Thrace to Greece and Serbia to Yugoslavia - Hungary: lost Transylvania to Romania and Slovakia to Czechoslovakia - Finland: lost some territories to USSR ONU⟶ 4 policemen =USA, UK, USSR, China⟶United Nations declaration for a newworld order and peaceful coexistence. The UNwas born before the war was over. Conference of foreignministers: elaboration Conference of DumbartonOaks: organization Yalta conference: membership and constitution San Francisco conference: final draft of the charter Purposes: - prevent war, collective security - international cooperation - defend human rights Made up by: - general assembly - security council (veto) - secretariat NATO⟶North Atlantic Treaty = USA+UK + ITA + FR + BE +NE + LUX +Canada +Denmark + Iceland +Norway + Portugal An armed attack against any of them constitutes an attack against all of them. ⤷North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a defense organization underDwight Eisenhower. MARSHALL PLAN: American aid to rebuild Europe for better social and political conditions and in return Europe makes concessions for the USA: lower tariffs and accept more American exports.⟶ Organization for European economic cooperation (OEEC) to receive aid, but USSR declined. SCHUMAN PLAN: for European federation and centralization of sovereignty between the member countries. FR + IT + BE + NE + LUX + WG = European coal and steel community (ECSC), which transformed into the European economic community (EEC), which was followed by the European defense community (EDC) but it never became effective. COLDWAR =USA vs. USSR⟶ ideology, power, proximity capitalism and democracy vs. communism and socialism Drastic change of attitude and USA foreign policy for decades: - Kennan’s long telegram from Moscow: USSR act as if they were surrounded by enemies to defeat. USAmust contain Soviet expansionism andmake countries free. - Churchill’ speech at Fulton, Missouri: iron curtain, alliance USA +UK, call for settlement with Soviets. - Truman doctrine: give financial aid to countries oppressed by foreign control of USSR (when UK withdrew troops from Greece and Turkey and USSR might step in to extend their dominion) and avoid domino theory. Containment: Stalin responded to American containment with further Soviet containment: intense ideological orthodoxy, get rid of political pluralism and dissidents, excommunicated Tito’s Yugoslavia and the Berlin blockade.⟶ Cominform: communist information bureau for security and unity under Stalin of the socialist countries. Marshall plan was seen as enslavement of Europe under capitalism. Soviet countries united under the Warsaw pact for collective security signed by USSR + Albania + Bulgaria + Romania + CS + Poland +Hungary + EG⟶NATO vs.Warsaw pact Nikita Khrushchev is the successor of Stalin but in his secret speech he denounces cult of personality, crimes, purges and deportations and wants peaceful coexistence with the USA and destalinization.⟶ End of Cominform. GERMANQUESTION- Germany was kept in one piece for economy and administration but the occupying powers produced different policies. Control council for unanimous decisions thanks to veto. WEST: USA +UK + FR⟶Bizona⟶ Trizona⟶ federal republic of Germany (FRG) EAST: USSR⟶ socialist unity party⟶German democratic republic (GDR) Only the West gets Marshall aid, so it is able to have new elections and currency.⟶ Soviet reaction: stop rail, road, water traffic, no mail, no electricity. = Berlin Blockade for one year. USA supplies arrived via air anyway so the Soviets were defeated.Most acute form of cold war. East andWest do not recognize each other’s existence but this brings a sort of stability (cold peace). Khrushchev wants to end the division of Berlin by getting all movements in and out of East Berlin under Soviet control: he declares four-power agreement as null and calls for an ultimatum but nothing is resolved because USSR shoots down an American photographic aircraft.⟶Migration from East to West Berlin for better living conditions.⟶ Berlin wall: West Berlin underWilly Brandt is cut off by a barrier of barbed wire and later concrete blocks. ⟶ It stabilizes economy and improves living conditions in the East. It ended the German question for a while but the cold war was never stable. Demonstrations start in East Germany so the regime announces that requests to leave the country can be presented without giving reasons and that authorization will be granted rapidly + parts of the Berlin wall are knocked down. ⟶ Christian democrats win at free elections. East Germany is incorporated into the West German economy, with transfer of resources to the east. USSRwithdraws all forces and East Germany enters NATO.⟶ Final settlement with respect to Germany = unification. KOREANWAR- Korea was under the influence of China for the longest time, but it was annexed to Japan. During WW2 USSR declared war on Japan and entered Korea from the north and American troops pushed them back to the 38th parallel. Korea was divided into 2 parts.⟶ North Korea invaded South Korea to become one single nation. USSR helped North Korea with aid from Mao Zedong’s China; USA intervened by UN operation and got a ceasefire and an armistice but no peace treaty (still today). It was the first hot war during the cold war. HUNGARY- Imre Nagy returns to power after the student insurrection to demand the departure of Soviet troops and neutrality for Hungary abandoning one-party rule. But Soviet troops get back into Budapest and crush the insurrection with heavy clampdown on political unorthodoxy. Nagy is arrested and deported and substituted by Janos Kadar.⟶USSRwins but more conscious of weaknesses and use of force. ＊ Czechoslovakia is the hardest country to control because of strong tradition of democracy. USSR sends troops through Poland to the Czech border.⟶Czechoslovakia comes into the Soviet camp. Africa: at the end ofWW2Africa is controlled by UK, FR, BE, SP, PO because of mineral resources. - Maghreb: under French influence, weakened after UK and USA occupation; has ties with middle east and is influenced by nationalists movement.⟶Algerian war of independence. - Sub Sahara: nationalist movements gain national consciousness and 27 former colonies gain independence.⟶Carnation revolution against Portugal⟶ 1960 = the year of Africa - South Africa: afrikaner national party wins the elections after WW2 and affirms a regime of division based onwhite supremacy and racial segregation (apartheid). Organization of African unity (OAU) to promote solidarity and human rights, coordinate economical and political agendas and eliminate colonialism.⟶Bandung conference: arab-asian group is formed in ONU + non-aligned movement. It started officially during the Brioni meeting, hosted by Tito with Nasser andNehru. Cairo conference gives criteria (often disregarded): - no alliance with USA or USSR - support to nationalist movements ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT- Question of creating a Jewish state in Palestine by zionists after the holocaust, but found opposition from the arabs. ⟶ Resolution 181: UK ends mandate in Palestine and UN affirms the partition of Palestine into two parts: arab + jewish. The jewish agency and fighting began.⟶zionists took asmuch territory as possible and David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the state of Israel. The arab league (Egypt + Syria + Lebanon + Transjordan + Iraq) attacks Israel to protect Palestine but they lose because Israel is supplied by USSR and arab states were driven by individual objectives (king Abdullah of Transjordan made a separate truce with Israel for territorial gains). USA supports Israel because of genuine sympathy; USSR supports Israel to attack British imperialism. SIX-DAY WAR: Israel vs. Egypt + Syria + Jordan. Nasser receives wrong report fromUSSR that Israel was about to attack Syria, so he moved his troops on the Sinai and closed the strait of Tiran with king Hussein’s Jordan troops to block Israeli commerce. ⟶ Israel under Levi Eshkol does a preemptive strike on Egypt, invades Sinai, crushes Jordan forces, occupies Jerusalem, attacks Syria, occupies the Golan Heights and the West Bank in the Gaza strip.⟶Resolution 242 byONU calls for withdrawal of Israeli forces and acknowledgement of sovereignty of occupied territories but the answer is negative and Palestine grewmore incline to terrorism. YOM KIPPUR WAR: Israel vs. Egypt under Anwar Sadat + Syria under Bashar Assad (Egypt wants compromise and withdrawal from Suez canal in exchange for opening to Israeli commerce; Syria want total defeat of Israel)⟶Draw: Egypt + Syria got back only some territories. ⤷ USA and USSR don’t want war but did nothing to prevent the wars in middle east. Resolution 338 for ceasefire failed, both prepared to intervene in the battle with nuclear power but they did nothing. A further ceasefire resolution fromONU succeeded. ⤷Oil crisis: arab countries imposed oil embargo on countries friendly to Israel. USSR produces own oil. DÉTENTÉ- Nixon doctrine (+ Kissinger): USA continues to provide nuclear defense, but expects other countries to provide for their own defense against non-nuclear aggression.⟶Maintain detenté + arms control by USA andUSSR because both have problems that push them to pursue good relations: USA: - inflation - oil shock because of middle east - Vietnam - Nixon ends convertibility of dollar in gold (end of BrettonWoods system) USSR: - European communist block loses unity - internal economic problems - economic dependence on the west - China is an ally nomore - opposition after invasion of Czechoslovaki Stages of detente: Opening to China: USA recognises People’s republic of China and withdraws the support for the nationalists in Taiwan. China replaces Taiwan in ONU. End of thewar in Vietnam = end of internal division between supporters and opposers ofs war. Summits on arm race: USA and USSR are capable of mutual assured destruction (USSR has more missiles but USA is ahead in the development ofMIRV) and can develop newweapons not covered by the agreements. Defense is improved by antiballistic missiles (ABM) that intercept enemy missiles mid-flight. Offense is improved by multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRV) that carrymultiple warheads. - Treaty on the limitation of ABM: stationed in just two sites to protect their capital cities and another onewherever they want in their country. - Supplement of the treaty ofMoscow: limit nuclear tests underground. - Strategic arms limitation talks 1 (SALT I): limit the number of missile launchers for 5 years. ⤷ The summits are interrupted by the Watergate affair: a burglary in the Watergate building approved by the heads of the white house andNixon knows about it and its concealment. It ruined his reputation so he resigned from office and is followed by Gerald Ford, but international relations is carried by Kissinger. - Strategic arms limitation talks 2 (SALT II) proposed by Jimmy Carter limits all types of strategic deliverymissiles. Germany: Hallstein doctrine (west refuses to recognise the east) is followed by negotiations between West Germany and USSR thanks toWilly Brandt (ostpolitik: recognition of the east) for peace.⟶ The occupying powers reach the four-power agreement on Berlin: both western powers and USSR drop the claim that West Germany was part of their territory + they recognise each other. These advancements are embodied by the Helsinki process. HELSINKI PROCESS- It embodies the advancements made by the capitalist and communist blocs. The final act of the process has three sections/baskets: - commercial, industrial and environmental cooperation - humanitarian and cultural cooperation - security in Europe - sovereign equality of the states - rejection of the use of force - inviolability of frontiers - respect for human rights - equal rights among people - peaceful settlements of disputes The Helsinki process is proposed by USSR but it had negative effects on the long run and played a role in the collapse of communism. After the process, both superpowers were in worse condition than before the detenté: USA: - defeat in Vietnam - Watergate affair - devaluation of the dollar - support to Pinochet’s regime - Carter’s attempt to promote human rights produced little effects USSR: - deep economic crisis - malcontent of the bloc - exploitation of Americanmalaise But SALT I and SALT II leave open the development of other types of weapons and leave west Europe out of international affairs. SOVIET INVASIONOFAFGHANISTAN- USSR undertook a policy of active intervention in several parts of Africa and Asia showing support to Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia, SOmalia and Yemen in the search for new friendly ports. Carter did nothing to prevent the soviet influence because USAwas shocked after Vietnam. USSR invades Afghanistan and helps communist Mohamed Taraki seize power in Kabul, but he is killed and USSR loses control of the country. Afghanistan wants to emulate Iran which created the islamic republic, but USSR intervenes with force because after the Prague spring no soviet country can deviate from socialism + sends troops to prevent American and Islamic influences from gaining ground. ⟶ ONU condemns soviet invasion. USA imposed embargo on exports of cereals and high technology to USSR, did not ratify SALT II, boycotted olympics in Moscow and supported Pakistan (which is encouraging resistance against soviets in Afghanistan). But USA is not supported bywestern Europe because Carter did not regard Europe during international negotiations. ⤷ USSR hold Kabul but has no control in the countryside or in the mountains and gains hostility of islamic countries. USA arms Afghan guerrillas through Pakistan. Reagan supplies weapons that were created only in the Soviet Union or in the states of the Warsaw pact so USSR cannot trace them immediately, then directly with American weapons⟶ End of detenté. ＊ The battle against communism in Afghanistan radicalizes muslim youth, includingOsama bin Laden. NEWCOLDWAR- 80s see no summit meetings but new arm race, hostility, denunciation and denigration. Ronald Reagan depicts soviets as criminals prepared for anything in order to achieve world revolution.⟶ Reagan doctrine: roll back the gains made by USSR and soviet-supported countries. He is anti-communist but is ready for negotiation with USSR. He increases the budget for the army but lowers income salaries (reaganomics). In the 70s USA did little intervention in Africa but in the new cold war it opposed USSR directly + hostility to left-wing regimes of central and south America + supply weapons to Afghanistan resistance. ＊ Nicaragua: marxist sandinista movement takes power so Reagan forms the Contra guerrilla supplying secret weapons from Iran (Irangate).⟶Damage to Reagan’s reputation because of supplies to religious fanatics. ＊ Grenada: marxist new jewel movement takes power so Reagan uses force to suppress it. ⟶ Disproportion in fighting arises anti-American feelings because of brutality towards small countries. USSR has an extensive zone of influence but Africa has civil wars and eastern Europe is growingmore independent + economic problems. ＊ Poland is the most dangerous because Lech Walesa leads Solidarnosc created from the workers party, independent from the communist party. It is defeated but it shows the weakness of USSR. USA andUSSR tried tomake new negotiations: strategic arms reduction talks (START) but it produced no results so the nuclear arms race resumed. Reagans wants strategic defense initiative (SDI) using space technology to provide security against nuclear missiles but it is not possible. But at the same time neither wants more territory or the destruction of the other superpower even if they have the possibility to do so.War was improbable and peace was impossible because of ideology. ADVENTOFGORBACHEV- Mikhail Gorbachevwants to reform the USSR especially after Chernobyl with the politics of: - glasnost = openness⟶ expression of opinion - perestrojka = reconstruction⟶ renewal of all aspect of soviet society Reform at home requires peace abroad thanks to a new deployment of resources: cut costs of support of foreign communist regimes in the third world + cut costs of armaments byt negotiating with USA. Gorbachev and Reagan held four summits: Geneva summit + informal private talks⟶ Success + televised broadcast of mutual goodwill messages. Libya (soviet protegé) explodes a bomb in west Berlin so USA bombs Tripoli to attack Gaddafi. Reykjavik summit: Gorbachev offered concessions to the Americans for intermediate-range and long-range missiles. In return he asked the Americans to adhere to the provisions of SALT I with regard to limitations on ABM defenses, which would have prevented the development of the SDI, but Reagan declined and left.⟶ Failure + start of a new nuclear arms race. Washington summit: destruction within three years of all land-based missiles deployed in Europe and Asia with a range of between 500 and 5,500 kilometers.⟶ Success + first actual reduction of weapons. Moscow summit: mainly for publicity and propaganda and to endwar by proxy: - USSRwithdraws troops fromAfghanistan - USA ends embargo on soviet exports after the invasion of Afghanistan - Cuban troopwithdraws fromAngola - Vietnamwithdraws troops fromKampuchea 󰎺 23 june 1956: Gamal Nasser’s election + Arab socialism 󰎺 20 july 1956: USA andUKwithdraw financial support to Aswan dam 󰎺 26 july 1956: Nasser nationalizes Suez canal company 󰎺 22-24 october 1956: Sèvres conferences (UK + France + Israel) 󰏘 23 october 1956: hungarian insurrection in favor of Imre Nagy 󰏘 31 october 1956: Nagy proclaims Hungary as neutral 󰏘 3-4 november 1956: USSR sedates insurrection + Janos Kádár 󰑔 5 january 1957: Eisenhower doctrine 󰎩 24 agosto 1958: China bombsQuemoy 󰎬 8 january 1959: Fidel Castro’s rebels defeat Fulgencio Batista’s dictatorship 󰎲 1may 1960: summit in Paris to discuss Berlin 󰑔 8 novembre 1960: Kennedy’s election 󰎬 17 april 1961: Cuban brigade in the Bay of pigs 󰎲 13 august 1961:West Berlin cut off by barbedwire⟶Berlin wall 🌍 1 septembre 1961: Belgrade summit conference of non-aligned states 󰎬 september-october 1962: USSR carries missiles and nuclear warheads to Cuba 󰎬 21 october 1962: naval blockade for Soviet ships 󰎬 25-26 october 1962: Khrushchev gets wrong report of American invasion of Cuba 󰎬 27 october 1962: American U-2 aircraft is shot down but Cuba claims the attack 🌍 25may 1963: Organization of African Unity (OAU) 󰖙 5 august 1963: limited nuclear test ban 󰑔 22 november 1963: Kennedy’s assassination 󰑜 7 august 1964: Tonkin gulf resolution 󰑜 2march 1965: operation rolling thunder 󰏛 5 june 1967 - 10 june 1967: six-day war⟶ Israel vs. Egypt + Jordan + Syria 󰏛 22 november 1967: resolution #242 by UN 󰑜 20 january 1968: tet offensive 󰖙 1 july 1968: nuclear non proliferation treaty 󰐮 20 august 1968: USSR invades Alexander Dubcek’s Czechoslovakia + Gustav Husák 󰑔 5 november 1968: Richard Nixon’s election 󰎲 28 september 1969:Willy Brandt’s election 󰖙 12 august 1970: treaty ofMoscow 󰎺 28 september 1970: death of Gamal Nasser 󰎺 17 october 1970: Anwar Sadat 󰎲 3 september 1971: Four-power agreement on Berlin 󰖙 26maggio 1972:SALT I 󰑔 17 june 1972: burglary atWatergate 󰖙 22 november 1972: conference on European security and co-operation; 󰎺 6 - 25 october 1973: yom kippur war/october war 󰎺 23 october 1973: resolution #338 󰐨 25 april 1974: carnation revolution in Portugal 󰑜 30 april 1975: Saigon’s occupation 󰖙 30 july 1975: Helsinki process 󰑔 2 november 1976: JimmyCarter’s election 󰖙 18 june 1979: SALT II 󰐮 24 december 1979: USSR invades Afghanistan 󰐤 31 august 1980: LechWałęsa forms Solidarność 󰑔 4 november 1980: Ronald Reagan’s election 󰐤 13 december 1981:Wojciech Jaruzelski suppresses Solidarność 󰖙 29 june 1982: START 󰖙 23march 1983: Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) 󰑔 25 october 1983: Grenada coup 󰐮 11march 1985:Mikhail Gorbachev’s election 󰖙 19 november 1985: Geneva summit 󰖙 11 october 1986: Reykjavik summit 󰖙 8 december 1987:Washington treaty 󰖙 29may 1988:Moscow summit 󰑔 8 november 1988: George Bush’ election 󰎩 3 june 1989: Tiananmen squaremassacre 󰎲 9 november 1989: fall of the Berlin wall 󰖙 5 july 1990: declaration of London 󰎲 3 ottobre 1990: unification of Germany 󰏟 16 january - 28 february 1991: Iraq invades Kuwait⟶ first gulf war 󰐮 28 june 1991: end of COMECON 󰐮 17march 1991: referendum onmaintenance of USSR 󰐮 12 june 1991: Boris Yeltsin’s election 󰐮 1 july 1991: end ofWarsaw pact 󰐮 25 december 1991: Gorbachev’s resignation 󰐮 1 january 1992: end of USSR