Intero programma di letteratura inglese di V anno per maturità, Dispense di Inglese

Scarica Intero programma di letteratura inglese di V anno per maturità e più Dispense in PDF di Inglese solo su Docsity! PROGRAMMA INGLESE THE XVIII CENTURY (from 1798 - to 1837) Historical background→Revolutions and Reforms: The Romantic age conventionally started in1798, the year of the publication of the Lyrical Ballads and covers: - The second part of the reign of George III; - The reign of George IV; - The reign of William IV, the brother of George IV. This was a period of troubles and revolutions that’s why a series of reforms took place in order to improve the English way of life. The most important of them were: - The Catholic Emancipation Act (1829)→it gave the Catholics the same rights as the Protestants; - The Reform Bill (1832)→ gave the middle class the right to vote which was still in the hands of aristocracy and big landowners; - The Slavery act (1833)→ abolished slavery in the British colonies; - The Factory Act (1833)→ abolished the exploitation of the children in factories: children under 9 yrs could no longer work in factories. Romanticism: Romanticism is a literary movement which spread out in Europe and was particularly influenced by the democratic ideas of the American and French Revolutions, the ideas of the French Philosophers Voltaire and Rousseau and the German movement “Sturm und Drang”. In politics it supported revolution against every sort of reaction. In philosophy it marked the triumph of idealism over rationalism and empiricism. In literature it was a revolt against the strict rules of Classicism dominated by reason and realism. It supported the importance of Imagination, which was considered the supreme faculty of knowledge, the free expression of personal feelings and individualism. In Europe it assumed different connotations in different countries and was essentially philosophical in Germany, revolutionary in France, patriotic in Italy and literary in England. Generally English romantic poets are divided into two generations: - The 1st generation includes poets who lived at the outbreak of the French Revolution and supported its ideals with enthusiasm (Wordsworth, Coleridge and Southey); - The 2nd generation includes poets who lived after the Revolutionary phase; they were disillusioned and reacted to the society of the time in a more individualistic way. (Shelley Byron and Keats). MARY SHELLEY: Life: Mary Shelley was born in 1797, she’s the daughter of the pioneer feminist Mary Wollstonecraft and the radical thinker William Godwin. Both her parents had been heavily influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution. After Mary’s birth, her mother died, and two years later her father remarried and consequently Mary’s emotional life was troubled. During her growing age Godwin’s house was visited by some of the most famous writers of the day, like the Romantic poets Samuel Coleridge and Percy Bysshe Shelley with whom she fell in love with. The couple moved to France and later the poet decided to rent a country house on the banks of Lake Geneva. It was there that the writing of Frankenstein (or the Modern Prometheus) came to life. The initial inspiration of this novel was the result of the intellectual stimulation of Shelley and the Romantic poet together with her own deep anxieties and uncertainties. The novel was published anonymously in 1818. In 1822 the Shelleys moved to Lerici, where Percy disappeared. Mary returned to England where she died. Frankenstein: Plot: Doctor Frankenstein, a Swiss scientist, manages to create a human being by joining parts selected from corpses. Despite careful preparation, the result of the experiment is ugly and revolting; the monster becomes a murderer, and in the end he destroys his creator. The story is not told chronologically and it is introduced to us by a series of letters written by Walton, a young explorer on a voyage of expedition to the North Pole, to his sister, Margaret Saville. The influence of science: Mary Shelley dedicated Frankenstein to Godwin and used many of the ideas held by her parents, including social justice and education. She clearly sympathises with the monster, but she is afraid of the consequences of his actions. Even the influence of Percy Shelley was important. He and Mary were interested in science, and particularly chemistry, so that by the time she wrote Frankenstein, she was aware of the latest scientific theories and experiments of the day in the fields of chemistry, evolutionism and electricity. The protagonist is the first embodiment of the theme of science and its responsibility to mankind. In fact, Frankenstein tries to create a human being through the use of electricity and chemistry without respecting the rules of nature. Literary Influences: The monster can be considered Rousseau’s natural man, that is a man in a primitive state, not influenced by civilisation; he, however, rapidly discovers the limitations both of the state of nature and of civilisation. Frankenstein differs from the Gothic tradition, since it is not set in a dark castle and does not deal with supernatural events. The myth of Prometheus is also important. Prometheus, in Greek mythology, was a giant who stole fire from the gods in order to give it to man. In so doing, he challenged the divine authority and freed men from the gods’ power. Narrative structure: This novel is told by different narrators and presents three different points of view. The form of the novel is epistolary. Themes: The main themes of the novel are: - the quest for forbidden knowledge, which is present throughout; - the overreacher→ in the characters of Walton and Dr Frankenstein; - the double→ the three most important characters of the novel are all linked to the theme of the double (Walton is a double of Frankenstein, since he manifests the same ambition, the desire to overcome human limits in his traveling towards the unknown.) - the penetration of nature’s secrets, which is related to the theme of the overreacher; - the usurpation of the female role, since the creation of human beings becomes possible without the participation of women; - social prejudices→ through the figure of the monster as an outcast. CHARLES DICKENS (1812-70): Life: Charles Dickens was born in 1812 in the South of England and then moved to London. There he was given regular schooling until his father was arrested for debts. He was forced to go to work in a factory, which he found to be a traumatic experience. He became a journalist and wrote articles for specialized newspapers. He adopted the pen name of Boz and described London people and scenes in short articles called Sketches by Boz, which were published in installments (they were a kind of chapters; each installment had to draw attention using suspense, mainly at the end, using turns of events). Charles Dickens was influenced by his experiences (prison, the poor quarters of London, life in the city streets and the other boys working at the factory) in his novels. He was deeply conscious of social injustice, political incompetence, the poverty and the suffering of the masses, and the class conflicts of Victorian England. His main works are: ● Oliver Twist: It tells the story of an orphan brought up in a workhouse who runs away to London and joins a gang of thieves made of children. ● Hard Times: It describes the suffering of the factory system and the harm done by utilitarianism (which judged the value of everything according to its practical value). It is set in Coketown (‘town of coke’, coke being a kind of coal used in industry). ● David Copperfield: It’s a semi-autobiographical novel, which tells the loves, pains and wonders of childhood. David Copperfield was an orphan as well, who worked in a factory, became a journalist and a successful writer. Use of ironic language: Dickens’ style is characterized by the combination of the pathetic and the comic. His main strength is his humor, through which he addresses and highlights serious issues and problems of his period. He shows us the Victorian society as it was with irony and realism. He masters the use of poetic devices, such as metaphors, in order to create lively portraits of universal characters, explore the depths of the human psyche and represent social conflict. In fact, his characters are divided into categories, the good ones and the bad ones: while the poor ones are well-portrayed in appearance and manners, upper class characters tend to fall into stereotypes. Oliver Twist: Oliver Twist is a novel published in 1838. It tells the story of an orphan boy named Oliver Twist and his experiences in the harsh world of 19th-century London. Summary: Oliver Twist is born in a workhouse and spends his early years in a loveless and oppressive environment. He is then sent to an undertaker, where he suffers abuse and mistreatment. Eventually, Oliver runs away to London, where he falls into the clutches of a gang of young thieves. Oliver's innocence and virtuous nature stand in stark contrast to the criminal activities surrounding him. Oliver is then taken in by a kind old man named Mr. Brownlow, but the gang plots to capture him back. Through a series of events and revelations, Oliver's true identity and noble lineage are discovered. The novel concludes with the downfall of the criminal characters and Oliver finding a loving and stable home. Main Themes: - Social Injustice and Poverty: Dickens exposes the harsh realities of social inequality and the suffering of the poor in Victorian England. He portrays the corrupt workhouse system, the exploitation of child labor, and the wide gap between the rich and the impoverished. - Innocence and Virtue: Oliver represents purity and moral goodness amid a corrupt and morally bankrupt society. His unwavering integrity and innate goodness shine through even in the face of adversity. The novel explores the potential for goodness in human nature and the struggle to preserve it. - Criminality and Redemption: The characters in Oliver Twist range from virtuous and compassionate to villainous and deceitful. Dickens delves into the themes of criminality, repentance, and the possibility of redemption. He emphasizes the influence of one's environment on their actions and the potential for individuals to change their paths. - Hypocrisy and Deception: Dickens satirizes the hypocrisy of the upper class and the institutions of power. He exposes the contrast between their outward appearance of respectability and their underlying corruption and greed. Characteristics: Oliver Twist is a social novel that exposes the harsh realities of Victorian society. The novel is populated with a diverse array of characters, each with their distinct personalities and quirks. Dickens's writing style is known for its emotional depth and powerful descriptions, He skillfully evokes sympathy and empathy from the readers. Despite its serious themes, the novel incorporates moments of humor and satire. Dickens balances the darker aspects of the story with lighter moments, providing a multifaceted reading experience. In the passage Oliver Asks for More Dickens gives a satirical portrait of the working house and denounces the fact that children starved while the authorities of the workhouse had a consistent amount of food to eat. At the end of the text, Oliver’s act of asking for more provokes a violent and exaggerated reaction from the gentlemen as they saw it as an act of rebellion. Hard times: Hard Times" is a novel published in 1854. It offers a critique of the social and economic conditions of Victorian England, focusing on the detrimental effects of industrialization and the dehumanizing aspects of utilitarianism. Summary: Hard Times is set in the fictional industrial town of Coketown and revolves around the lives of several characters who are caught in the rigid and mechanistic world of utilitarian philosophy. The main characters include a stern and practical-minded educator who believes in teaching only facts and suppressing imagination, and his children, Louisa and Tom. As the story unfolds, the consequences of the Gradgrinds' adherence to utilitarian principles and their neglect of emotional and moral development become apparent. Through the intervention of characters like the compassionate school teacher Mr. Sleary, Dickens presents alternative perspectives and explores the importance of empathy, imagination, and compassion in a mechanized society. Main Themes: - Utilitarianism and Dehumanization: Dickens critiques the philosophy of utilitarianism, which prioritizes efficiency. He highlights the dehumanizing effects of reducing human beings to mere units of production and the negative consequences of a society driven solely by utilitarian principles. - Importance of Imagination and Emotion: "Hard Times" emphasizes the significance of imagination, creativity, and emotional intelligence in human life. - Redemption and Moral Growth: The novel explores the potential for personal growth, redemption, and moral transformation. Characters such as Louisa and Tom confront the consequences of their choices and undergo a process of self-reflection and redemption, highlighting the possibility of change and the importance of second chances. Characteristics: Like many of Dickens's works, "Hard Times" is a social novel that exposes the negative aspects of Victorian society. Dickens employs satire, irony, and biting criticism to shed light on the shortcomings of the industrial era and its impact on individuals and communities. The novel features a range of characters, each representing different social classes, ideologies, and moral perspectives. Through them Dickens illustrates the complexities of human nature and the diversity of social experience. AESTHETICISM and DECADENTISM: Origins: Aestheticism originated in France when Teophile Gautier first used the slogan “Art for art’s sake”. It was a reaction against the material bourgeois world and in particular, against a moral didactic concept of art. It asserted: - The supremacy of Art and Beauty above all human values; - The independence of Art from any political, moral or practical interests Aestheticism may be considered an evolution of Romanticism as it was based on the gap between the artist and the outside world. Anyway it differs: - For its cult of beauty and art; - For the independence of art from any political, moral message; - Because it soon turned into hedonism (pursuit of sensual pleasure) for the aesthetes, life too should be free from any moral and conventional themes. They were called bohemians. Aestheticism soon turned into Decadentism; the decadents were mostly attracted by perversion and corruption, vice and evil. The most important exponents of the European Decadentism were: - In France→ Huysmans who wrote A Rebours; - In Italy→ D’annunzio and Il Piacere; - In England→ Oscar Wilde the author of the Picture of Dorian Gray. Aestheticism in England: Forerunners of the Aesthetic movement in England were John Keats, the critic John Ruskin and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. But for Keats and Ruskin ART still has a moral or social function. The best representatives were AWalter Pater and Oscar Wilde. ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON: Life: Robert Louis Stevenson was born in Edinburgh in 1850. Because of his poor health, he spent most of his childhood in bed, terrified of the dark and tutored at home under the influence of his family’s Calvinism. In his adolescence he traveled a lot in search of a friendlier climate; he lived in the south of England, Germany, France and Italy. He took up engineering at university, following in his father’s footsteps, but he was not enthusiastic about it. He was in conflict with his social environment, the respectable Victorian world; he grew his hair long, his manners were eccentric and he became one of the first examples of a ‘bohemian’ in Britain, openly rejecting his family’s religious principles and their love for respectability. He married an American woman, and since his health was deteriorating, they moved to Australia. He died of a brain hemorrhage in 1894. Works: Stevenson became popular as a novelist in the 1880s, when he published: - Treasure Island (1883); - The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886); - Kidnapped (1886); - The Master of Ballantrae (1889). Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hide: The story: The plot of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is quite simple: the protagonist is a man divided against himself into two distinct characters. The first is a respectable being, Jekyll, and the second thanks to a poisoned potion, an evil genius, Hyde. These two beings are in a perpetual struggle, so there are only two choices: the man may choose a life of crime and depravity, or Jekyll must eliminate Hyde by killing himself. Jekyll’s suicide is the final and only choice so man’s salvation is based on the destruction of one part of his wild nature. Origin: This novel had its origin in a dream: afflicted with tuberculosis and haunted by sleeplessness and melancholy, Stevenson wrote down in his diary that he had dreamed of a man in a laboratory who had swallowed a drug and turned into a different being. Main Themes: - The Dual Nature of Humanity: The novel explores the theme of the dual nature inherent in every human being. Stevenson suggests that within each individual, there are both light and dark impulses, good and evil tendencies. Jekyll's experiments allow him to physically separate and embody these contrasting aspects through his transformation into Hyde, highlighting the inner struggle between the two sides of human nature. - Repression and Unleashed Desires: Stevenson examines the consequences of repressing one's desires and impulses. Jekyll, a highly respected and controlled individual, suppresses his darker urges but creates a separate persona, Hyde, to freely indulge in his suppressed desires. The narrative reflects the dangers of repressed emotions and the potential consequences of unleashing them. - Morality and Consequences: Stevenson explores the themes of morality and the consequences of one's actions. Characteristics: Stevenson skillfully creates a sense of foreboding and suspense throughout the novel. The foggy streets of London and the mystery surrounding Jekyll and Hyde contribute to the atmospheric tension that permeates the story. The story unfolds through a combination of narration and written documents, such as letters and confessions. This epistolary structure adds depth to the plot, allowing readers to piece together the events and uncover the truth alongside the characters. The characters in the novella are vividly portrayed, with Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde serving as contrasting representations of human nature. The descriptions of Hyde evoke a sense of dread and revulsion, emphasizing his sinister and deformed appearance. THE MODERN AGE: Historical Background: From Edward VII to World War I (1901-1914): The death of Queen Victoria seemed to mark the end of an era. When Edward VII became king in 1906, the Liberal Party was restored and were introduced legislative measures of social improvement. But the pre-war years of the 20th century were a time of industrial unrest, strikes and violence. The "Suffragettes" wanted women to have the vote. George V's reign (1910-1936) was characterized by political violence and a selfish mood in foreign affairs in the face of growing German rivalry. So Europe was divided into two rival camps: - Triple Alliance: between Germany, Austria and Italy; - Triple Entente between Britain, France and Russia. Britain declared war on Germany in August 1914. The great war caused the ruin of four empires, made possible a communist revolution in Russia and prepared the way for the rise of dictators like Mussolini, Hitler and Franco. Germany expected a brief conflict because it had better equipment, better trained soldiers and a clear plan of attack. Britain was unprepared for the terrible destructive power of modern artillery, machine guns and tanks. The war ended and in 1919, the Peace treaty was signed at Versailles. The victory brought Great Britain in a further extension of its colonial possession but also economic problems, unemployment and the unresolved Irish question. The Twenties and the Thirties (1918-1939): The rapid rise of the Labour Party was a consequence of the war, all men over 21 had the right of vote and women were granted suffrage. In 1919, the Irish volunteers prepared for the Civil War. The war ended with the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1921. In 1949 there was the official proclamation of the Republic of Ireland. In India, Gandhi started a non-violent protest against the British Government. All over Europe and America a serious crisis, known as the "depression", was taking place. Germany, under Hitler's leadership, was preparing to regain its position in Europe. In England, Edward VIII announced his intention to marry a divorced American woman, meeting the opposition of all parties. He therefore abdicated and was succeeded by his brother George VI. The forties: George VI’s reign was marked by international conflicts abroad: - the Spanish civil war between the Republicans helped by the European socialists and communists and Franco’s fascist’s forces helped by Nazi and Fascist. Britain did not take part but many intellectuals went to fight as volunteers in the International brigade on the Republican side (George Orwell). - In 1939 the second world war broke out. It started because Germany under the dictatorship of Hitler wanted to dominate Europe. England found a great leader in Winston Churchill whose powerful speeches contributed to cheer up the moral of the country. - More English colonies obtained self-government (such as India and Pakistan). In 1952 Queen Elizabeth II came to the throne. It is the longest reign in British history. During her reign the process of self-government went on and in the sixties practically all the English colonies became independent. In 1973 England was compelled to get out of her policy of “splendid isolation” and entered the European Common Market. Literature: The literary background of the XX century was marked by anxiety and by the desire to experiment new artistic means of expression (Modernism). The XX century has been called the “age of anxiety”, a name that expresses an aspect of contemporary literature that is insecurity, disillusion, anger. Many factors have contributed to create this sense of anxiety: The Anti-Victorian Reaction, Darwinism, Freud’s study in psychoanalysis, Einstein’s theory of relativity, the Two World Wars etc. The bloody experiences of the Two World wars shaken human faith in science and industry which had not produced a better world. WAR POETS: When the First world war broke out, thousands of young men volunteered for military service; most of them regarded the conflict as an adventure undertaken for noble ends. It was not until the slaughter of thousands British soldiers at the Battle of Somme in 1916 that this sense of pride and exhilaration was replaced by doubt and disillusionment. For the soldiers, life in the trenches was hell because of the rain and mud, the decaying bodies that rats fed on, the repeated bombings and the use of poison gas in warfare. Poets managed to represent modern warfare in a realistic and unconventional way, awakening the conscience of the readers back home to the horrors of the war. Rupert Brooke: Life and works: He was born in 1887 in a wealthy family and was educated at King’s College in Cambridge. He was a good student and athlete and, as he was associated with many literary circles, he came to know many important political, social and literary figures. Brooke died in April 1915 due to blood poisoning in the Aegean Sea and was buried on the Greek island of Skyros. He wrote five war sonnets. In them he developed his idea that war is clean and cleansing. According to Brooke, only the body can suffer in war and death is a reward. Obviously, the poet never had the opportunity to deny his vision of war, as he died when the conflict had just started. This is also the reason why his poems show a sentimental attitude that was lost in the brutality of the war in the other poets. The Soldier: The poem is the last of the five poems of Brooke’s War Sonnets. The soldier is speaking. He’s not afraid of death because he’s ready to die for England. His grave will be in another country: if he should die in another country, he would be proud because there will be a corner of England there. Dust is rich because of an English man who died honorably in order to defend his beloved country: his dead body will enrich the soil. England is seen as a mother who gave him life, brought him up, giving traditional values such as gentleness, kindness, happiness, politeness, friendship. His death is honorable, glorious and serene. The general tone of the poem is romantic and sentimental: in fact the view of war is idealized. Wilfred Owen: Life and works: He was born in 1893 in Oswestry. Owen enlisted voluntarily in 1915, when he was working as a teacher of English in France and visited a hospital for the wounded. In 1917 he was sent to France where he was injured and sent to Edinburgh, in order to recover from shell shock. There he came close with Siegfried Sassoon who read his poems and encouraged him to continue writing. Owen returned to the front in August 1918 and on 4th November he was killed in a German attack. Owen’s poems, differently from Brooke’s, portray the real madness of war, such as gas casualties, men who have gone mad and men who are clinically alive although their bodies have been destroyed. Dulce et Decorum Est (pro patria mori): (manifesto against the war). The poem is based on the poet’s experience of the horrors of the war in the trenches and it is an attempt to communicate the ‘pity of War’ to future generations. The Latin title means: it is sweet and honorable to die for your country: it is a quotation from the Latin poet Horace. Obviously, he’s ironic (bitter irony): he’s referring to the people who encourage young people to enlist to fight in the war. Owen on the contrary wanted to make people aware of what the war really brings: it brings suffering, degradation and death. (there is nothing noble in the war). “Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori” is described to be an ‘old lie’ because it was used many times in history in order to cover the harsh work of soldiers. MODERNISM: The XX century has also been called the “age of experiment”. This tendency is common to all literatures and is called “modernism” and includes numerous artistic and literary movements (Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism etc). In England “modernism” was evident in 1922 as it saw the publication of the Waste Land by T.S. Eliot and Ulysses by J. Joyce. It went on during the following decades (the poetic drama, the theater of Absurd) but after the Two World Wars there has been a return to more traditional forms of expressions. The Stream of Consciousness Novel: It was so called because it wanted to describe the flow, the river of thought which takes place in the mind of character. The expression “stream of consciousness” was first used by the American psychologist William James in a review, where he stated that our mind “doesn’t appear itself chopped up in beets, but flows like a river or a stream. Hence, we call it a stream of thought or consciousness”. Many factors contributes to its birth: - the great interest in Freud’s studies; - the general tendency of modern literature to break with the past and to find new artistic forms and techniques; - the new concept of time expressed by the French philosopher Henry Bergson. Bergson made a distinction between internal and external time. External time is conventionally divided into present, past and future. But in our mind it is a continuous flux that he called “la durèe”. Consciousness is not to be confused with other mental activities, like memory, intelligence. Stream of consciousness fiction is concerned with the area which is beyond communication. There are two levels of consciousness: - Speech level: communicated either orally or in writing (when we speak we are aware of what we are saying, but there are some areas of consciousness that we aren’t aware of); - Pre-speech level: it’s not rationally controlled or logically ordered. Modernist novelists wanted to explore and experiment the pre-speech level. We can compare our consciousness to an iceberg: the summit is visible, but the biggest part is submerged. Stream of consciousness fiction is concerned not so much with the part of the iceberg that emerges, but with what lies beyond the surface. The novelist has to explore what constitutes the mental process, analyze it and say how it works. The monologue is the way to translate the stream of consciousness into words. To do so the interior monologue often disregards logical transition, formal syntax and even conventional punctuation. (so as to reflect the apparently disconnected and chaotic sequence of thoughts). The narrator disappears inside the mind of the character, that’s why many times it’s difficult to understand what is written. The best representatives in Europe were: - in England→ James Joyce and Virginia Woolf; - in France→ Marcel Proust; - in Italy→ Italo Svevo. JAMES JOYCE: Life: James Joyce was born in Dublin in 1882. He was largely educated at Jesuit schools, before finally enrolling at University College, Dublin, where he gained a Bachelor of Arts degree with a focus on modern languages in 1902. Political and literary movements which had as their objective the freeing of Ireland from English dominance held very little attraction for him. At a certain moment he felt even trapped in Irish society because rules were too strict. In particular artists were not free to express their ideas. His interest was for a broader European culture, and this led him to begin to think of himself as a European rather than an Irishman. Joyce believed that the only way to increase Ireland’s awareness was by offering a realistic portrait of its life from a European, cosmopolitan viewpoint. He established himself on the Continent and spent some time in Paris, but due to his mother’s fatal illness in 1903 he came back to Dublin. It was in this period that he began to imagine his future career as a writer and published his first short story, The Sisters. It would eventually serve as the opening story in his Dubliners collection. In June 1904 he met and fell in love with Nora Barnacle. They had the first date on 16th June, which was to become the “Bloom’s day” of Ulysses. In 1905 the couple settled in Trieste, where Joyce began teaching English and made friends with Italo Svevo. The years in Trieste were difficult, filled with disappointment and financial problems. In 1915 Joyce moved to Zurich together with his family. In 1920 Joyce moved to Paris, where he published Ulysses in 1922. This novel drew both praise and sharp criticism. In 1940, when France was occupied by Germans, Joyce returned to Zurich, the city that had first given them refuge during WWI. Joyce never saw the end of WWII. He died at the age of 59 in 1941 and he was buried in Zurich. Themes and style: Though Joyce went into voluntary exile, he set all his works in Ireland and mostly in the city of Dublin. His objective was to give a realistic portrait of the life of ordinary people doing ordinary things and living ordinary lives. Joyce, influenced by the French Symbolists, believed in the impersonality of the artist. The artist's task was to render life objectively in order to give back the readers a true image of it. Joyce used different points of view and narrative techniques appropriate to the character portrayed. His style, language, technique developed from the realism and the disciplined prose of Dubliners, through the use of the free indirect speech, to the interior monologue with two levels of narration, up to the extreme interior monologue. So, language broke down into a succession of words without punctuation or grammatical connections. Dubliners: Dubliners is a collection of fifteen short stories published in 1914. Summary: Dubliners consists of fifteen interconnected stories that capture different aspects of life in Dublin during the early 20th century. The stories are arranged in a progression from childhood to adulthood. Each story presents a slice of Dublin life, exploring themes of paralysis, isolation, frustration, and missed opportunities. The collection begins with stories focusing on childhood where young characters encounter early signs of disillusionment and confinement. The subsequent stories explore themes of unrequited love, failed relationships, and social constraints. The collection concludes with The Dead, a masterful and emotionally resonant story that explores themes of mortality, nostalgia, and the realization of missed opportunities. This story is set during a party. Gabriel, the main character, witnesses his wife, Gretta, listening to a song and the intensity of her focus on the music causes him to feel both sentimental and lustful. In a hotel room later, Gabriel is devastated to discover that he has misunderstood Gretta's feelings; she has been moved by the memory of a young lover named Michael Furey who preceded Gabriel, and who died for the love of Gretta when he was 17 years old. Gabriel realizes that she has never felt similarly passionate about their marriage. He feels alone and profoundly mortal, but spiritually connected for the first time with others. Main Themes and Characteristics: ● Paralysis and Stagnation: One of the central themes in "Dubliners" is the idea of paralysis, both literal and metaphorical. This theme reflects Joyce's critique of Dublin society and its stagnant cultural, social, and political climate. ● Realism and Naturalism: "Dubliners" is characterized by its realistic and detailed portrayal of Dublin life. Joyce captures the speech patterns, social dynamics, and physical environments of the city, often employing a naturalistic style to depict the everyday struggles and frustrations of the characters. ● Epiphanies and Moments of Revelation: Throughout the collection, Joyce presents moments of epiphany or realization in which characters gain insight into their own lives or the world around them. These moments of revelation often come unexpectedly and offer glimpses of hope or understanding amidst the overall sense of paralysis. Ulysses: Ulysses is a groundbreaking novel published in 1922. It is considered one of the most influential works of the 20th century and a cornerstone of modernist literature. Summary: Ulysses takes place over the course of a single day, June 16, 1904, in the city of Dublin, Ireland. The novel follows the parallel stories of three main characters: Leopold Bloom, an advertising salesman; Stephen Dedalus, a young writer and intellectual; and Molly, Leopold's wife. The novel begins with Stephen Dedalus and his musings on art, religion, and his place in society. The focus then shifts to Leopold Bloom, who goes about his daily routine, encountering various characters and situations. Bloom's experiences are juxtaposed with Stephen's intellectual and philosophical reflections. The novel also explores the inner thoughts and desires of Molly Bloom through her famous soliloquy in the final chapter. Throughout the day, the characters grapple with their personal histories, desires, and the cultural and political landscape of Ireland. Joyce delves into themes of identity, sexuality, religion, language, and the nature of art, employing a rich tapestry of literary techniques to capture the complexity and diversity of human experience. Main Themes and Characteristics: ● Stream of Consciousness: Ulysses is known for its use of the stream of consciousness narrative technique. Joyce delves deep into the characters' thoughts, feelings, memories, and associations, often presenting them in an unfiltered and nonlinear manner. ● Intertextuality and Allusion: Joyce's novel is densely intertextual, drawing on a vast range of literary, historical, and mythological references. The title itself alludes to Homer's Odyssey, and the novel mirrors the epic journey of Odysseus. ● Dublin as a Character: Dublin serves as a central character in the novel, with Joyce meticulously capturing the sights, sounds, and atmosphere of the city. He explores the social, political, and cultural landscape of early 20th-century Dublin, depicting its inhabitants, institutions, and societal conventions with both realism and satire. ● Exploration of Human Experience: At its core, "Ulysses" is an exploration of the complexities and contradictions of human experience. Joyce delves into the private thoughts, desires, and fears of his characters, examining themes of identity, sexuality, love, mortality, and the search for meaning in a chaotic world. Ulysses is a dense and challenging work that rewards attentive readers with its intricate exploration of the human psyche and its ambitious portrayal of a day in the life of Dublin. Joyce's innovative narrative techniques, thematic richness, and linguistic virtuosity continue to captivate and inspire scholars and readers alike. ● Sexuality and Desire: The poem explores themes of sexuality and desire, often presenting them as sources of corruption and disillusionment. Through the character of Tiresias, a figure from Greek mythology who embodies both male and female perspectives, Eliot explores the complex and destructive nature of sexual desire. ● Redemption and Hope: Despite its bleak portrayal of modern society, "The Waste Land" also hints at the possibility of redemption and hope. The poem concludes with a vision of spiritual renewal and rebirth, suggesting that from the ashes of the waste land, there is a potential for regeneration and the rediscovery of meaning. The Waste Land is a deeply layered and intricate poem that captures the disillusionment and despair of the post-war era. The objective correlative technique: The "objective correlative" is a critical concept introduced by T.S. Eliot in his essay Hamlet and His Problems, published in 1919. It refers to a literary technique or device used to evoke a specific emotional response in the reader through a set of objects, events, or situations that represent that emotion. The objective correlative functions as a means of expressing an emotion indirectly, through external and concrete elements rather than explicitly stating the emotion itself. According to Eliot, the use of an objective correlative allows the artist to convey complex emotions or states of mind that may be difficult to express directly. It provides a tangible and objective representation of an emotion or feeling, making it easier for the reader or audience to understand and experience the intended emotional response. In Eliot's own poetry, particularly in The Waste Land, he employs the objective correlative through vivid and evocative imagery, symbols, and allusions to create a complex web of emotions and experiences. These objective correlative elements contribute to the overall tone and atmosphere of the poem, enhancing the reader's engagement and emotional response. Overall, the objective correlative remains an influential concept in literary criticism, highlighting the importance of using concrete and sensory elements to convey emotions and enrich the reader's experience. GEORGE ORWELL: Life: George Orwell may be considered one of the most interesting novelists of the Inter-War period whose fame is strictly linked to the "Anti-utopian novels". "Utopia" is a Greek word which means an imaginary and perfect place at the same time. Orwell was born in Montihari, Bengal, which was a colony of the British Empire. The economic conditions of his family were not very good, so he had to study hard in order to get scholarships. At the end of his school days, he refused to go to university and went to Burma as a police officer. His colonial experience, too, was not happy because on one side, he met the opposition of his countrymen, who supported the superiority of the English race. That's why he resigned from the Imperial Police. In 1937, like many European socialist and intellectuals, Orwell went to fight in the Spanish Civil War, when Spain was divided between the Fascist forces of Franco and the Republican forces. His disappointment induced him to go back to England. The Spanish experience was reported in his famous book Homage to Catalonia (1938) and will be at the basis of his most famous novel: Animal farm and Nineteen Eighty-four. During the Second World War, Orwell could not join the British Army as he was ill with tuberculosis. So, he continued his career as a journalist and novelist, writing many articles, essays and novels. He died in 1950. Orwell is not a great novelist, because his novels are more interested in political and social problems, then in a deep analysis of the characters or a good plot. As a matter of fact, Orwell is a committed writer. His prose is always clear and very simple, which in Orwell's opinion, is a symbol of honesty and sincerity Animal farm: Animal Farm" is a novel published in 1945. It is a satirical allegory that uses a group of farm animals to portray the events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the early years of the Soviet Union. Summary: Animal Farm tells the story of a farm, where the animals, led by the pigs, revolt against their human owner, Mr. Jones. They establish a system called Animalism, based on the principles of equality and solidarity among all animals. Initially, the farm flourishes under the leadership of the pigs, particularly Napoleon and Snowball. Over time, the pigs consolidate their power and establish themselves as the ruling class, exploiting the other animals for their own benefit. They rewrite the principles of Animalism to suit their interests and gradually adopt the oppressive behaviors they once fought against. Eventually, the pigs become indistinguishable from the humans they originally rebelled against, and the once-idealistic revolution collapses into tyranny. Main Themes and Characteristics: ● Corruption of Power: One of the central themes in Animal Farm is the corrupting influence of power. The novel explores how those in positions of authority can become corrupted by their desire for control, privilege, and self-interest. The pigs gradually betray the principles of the revolution and use their power to exploit and manipulate the other animals. ● Totalitarianism and Abuse of Ideology: Animal Farm serves as a critique of totalitarian regimes, particularly Stalinist communism. Orwell exposes how such regimes manipulate ideology and propaganda to maintain control and suppress dissent. The manipulation of language and rewriting of history in the novel reflect the way totalitarian regimes distort truth and deceive their subjects. ● Class Struggle and Social Inequality: The novel explores the theme of class struggle and social inequality. Initially, the animals rebel against the oppressive human class, seeking a society based on equality. However, the pigs create a new hierarchy, leading to the emergence of a privileged class and the exploitation of the working-class animals. Orwell highlights the perpetuation of inequality and the failure of revolutions to address systemic social issues. ● Loss of Freedom and Individuality: "Animal Farm" examines how the animals' initial hopes for freedom and autonomy gradually erode under the pigs' rule. The animals lose their ability to make decisions for themselves, and their individuality is suppressed. Orwell emphasizes the dangers of surrendering personal freedom to authority figures who promise security and stability. ● Allegory and Satire: "Animal Farm" is an allegorical and satirical work that uses the animal characters and their experiences to critique real-world political systems and societal issues. By employing humor, irony, and caricature, Orwell exposes the flaws and contradictions of human nature and political power structures. Nineteen Eighty-four: Nineteen Eighty-Four is a dystopian novel published in 1949. Set in a totalitarian society, the novel explores themes of government surveillance, psychological manipulation, the erosion of individuality, and the power of language. Summary: Nineteen Eighty-Four is set in a province of the superstate Oceania. The protagonist, Winston Smith, works for the Party, the ruling entity of Oceania led by Big Brother. The Party exerts complete control over its citizens, monitoring their every move through ubiquitous surveillance and manipulating their thoughts and emotions through propaganda and psychological manipulation. Winston begins to question the Party's control and becomes involved in a forbidden love affair with Julia. Together, they rebel against the Party's oppressive regime, engaging in acts of resistance and seeking freedom of thought and expression. However, their rebellion is met with severe consequences as they are eventually captured and subjected to torture and brainwashing to conform to the Party's ideology. Main Themes and Characteristics: ● Totalitarianism and Government Surveillance: Nineteen Eighty-Four depicts a society in which the government exercises absolute control over its citizens. The Party's use of surveillance technology, such as telescreens and hidden microphones, allows it to monitor the thoughts and actions of every individual. Orwell's portrayal of this extreme level of government surveillance serves as a warning about the dangers of unchecked state power. ● Psychological Manipulation and Mind Control: The Party employs psychological manipulation and propaganda to control the minds of its citizens. Concepts such as "Newspeak" (a simplified language to limit independent thinking) and "Doublethink" (the ability to hold contradictory beliefs simultaneously) highlight the Party's efforts to mold and control the thoughts and beliefs of its subjects. ● Loss of Individuality and Identity: The novel explores the erosion of individuality under a totalitarian regime. The Party seeks to eliminate individuality, personal desires, and independent thought, promoting a collective identity centered around loyalty to the Party and Big Brother. Winston's rebellion and his pursuit of personal freedom represent a struggle to maintain his individuality in the face of oppressive conformity. ● The Power of Language: Orwell emphasizes the power of language and its role in shaping thoughts and controlling society. Through the manipulation of language, the Party controls and restricts the range of acceptable thoughts and ideas. The concept of "Newspeak" demonstrates how language can be used as a tool of oppression, limiting the ability to express dissent or challenge the Party's ideology. ● Historical Revisionism and Memory: Nineteen Eighty-Four explores the manipulation of history and memory by the Party. Winston's job at the Ministry of Truth involves rewriting historical records to align with the Party's propaganda. Orwell highlights the Party's ability to control the past, erasing and reshaping history to maintain its authority and manipulate the collective memory of society.