Interpretation Techniques and Exercises, Dispense di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Interpretation Techniques and Exercises e più Dispense in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! Interpretation PROFESSIONAL INTERPRETING IN THE REAL WORLD Series Editor: Diane Teichman, Linguistic Services, Houston, Texas, USA This series will publish books ranging from resource texts which help both interpreters in training and practising interpreters to better prepare for their assignments, to training materials and instruction manuals for instructors of interpreters. Other Books in the Series The Interpreter's Guide to the Vehicular Accident Lawsuit Josef F. Buenker Other Books of Interest Culture Bumps: An Empirical Approach to the Translation of Allusions Ritva Leppihalme Constructing Cultures: Essays on Literary Translation Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere The Pragmatics of Translation Leo Hickey (ed.) Practical Guide for Translators (3rd edition) Geoffrey Samuelsson-Brown Written in the Language of the Scottish Nation John Corbett ‘Behind Inverted Commas’ Translation and Anglo-German Cultural Relations in the Nineteenth Century Susanne Stark The Rewriting of Njßls Saga: Translation, Ideology, and Icelandic Sagas Jón Karl Helgason Time Sharing on Stage: Drama Translation in Theatre and Society Sirkku Aaltonen Translation and Nation: A Cultural Politics of Englishness Roger Ellis and Liz Oakley-Brown (eds) The Interpreter’s Resource Mary Phelan Annotated Texts for Translation: English–German Christina Schäffner with Uwe Wiesemann Contemporary Translation Theories (2nd Edition) Edwin Gentzler Literary Translation: A Practical Guide Clifford E. Landers Translation-mediated Communication in a Digital World Minako O’Hagan and David Ashworth Frae Ither Tongues: Essays on Modern Translations into Scotts Bill Findlay (ed.) Practical Guide for Translators (4th edition) Geoffrey Samuelsson-Brown Cultural Encounters in Translation from Arabic Said Faiq (ed.) For more details of these or any other of our publications, please contact: Multilingual Matters, Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon, BS21 7HH, England http://www.multilingual-matters.com Contents Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Introduction: Frequently Asked Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 Speaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2 Preparation/Anticipating the Speaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 3 Complex Syntax/Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 4 Word Order/Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5 General Adverbial Clauses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 6 Untranslatability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 7 Figures of Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 8 Argumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 9 Diction/Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 10 Formal Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 11 A Policy Address. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 12 Quotations/Allusions/Transposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 13 Political Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 v 14 Economic Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 15 Humor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 16 Latinisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 17 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 18 Note-taking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 vi Contents vi Acknowledgments I am much indebted to Mr Bruce Boeglin, former training officer of the United Nations Interpretation Service and director of the Marymount Manhattan College certificate program in interpretation, for his encour- agement. Useful comments on some of the exercises in this book also came from my students at Marymount Manhattan College and New York University. Mr Jean-Luc Rostan’s careful proofreading of the manuscript and Diane Teichman’s editorial guidance are highly appreciated. And no words can express my gratitude to my wife Adele, without whose patience and moral support this book would not have been written. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 vii For the sake of brevity, the treatment of subjects and techniques in this book is somewhat arbitrarily divided and some subjects are treated together in one chapter. The chapters need not be followed strictly in sequence and can be taken up in any order that the instructor or student finds appropriate, although it is strongly recommended that none be omitted from a comprehensive introductory course. The skills introduced earlier in the book (e.g. developing confidence as a public speaker) are those which are most necessary to a professional interpreter or which usually take longer for most students to master; those presented later in the book (e.g. transposing literary allusions) are techniques which are less often needed in practice or which interpreters can gradually acquire outside the classroom through experience and study. Most of the exer- cises can be done in class and/or as homework. Some require the use of tape recorders. Although the working languages used in these exercises are English, French, and Spanish, most of the exercises can be adapted to other working languages. What is Interpretation? Interpretation can be defined in a nutshell as conveying understanding. Its usefulness stems from the fact that a speaker’s meaning is best expressed in his or her native tongue but is best understood in the languages of the listeners. In addition, the respect shown by addressing an interlocutor in that person’s own language is conducive to successful diplomacy or negotia- tion. For example, US President John F. Kennedy undertook the task of mastering French specifically with a view to negotiating with French President Charles de Gaulle. But not all statesmen and diplomats have the time, energy, or linguistic talent to master the language of each party with whom they must speak. By bridging the gap between languages, the interpreter helps speakers to discharge their duty to make themselves understood and helps listeners to satisfy their need to understand what is being said. How Does Interpretation Differ from Translation? A translator studies written material in one language (the “source language”) and reproduces it in written form in another language (the “target language”). An interpreter listens to a spoken message in the source language and renders it orally, consecutively or simultaneously, in the target language. Both the translator and the interpreter must have 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 2 Interpretation 2 a thorough mastery of the target language, as well as a very good passive understanding of the source language or languages with which they work. For most interpreters, the target language will be his or her native tongue. The translator relies mainly on thorough research with background materials and dictionaries in order to produce the most accurate and readable written translation possible. The interpreter relies mainly on the ability to get the gist of the message across to the target audience on the spot. No translation is ever “perfect” because cultures and languages differ. However, in practice, the translator is usually held to a higher standard of accuracy and completeness (including the ability to reproduce the style of the original), while the interpreter is expected to convey the essence of the message immediately. The translator’s activity is more like that of a writer, while the inter- preter’s performance is more like that of an actor. A good translator will spend much time searching for the correct technical term or the right choice of words, but a good interpreter must immediately come up with a satisfactory paraphrase or a rough equivalent if le mot juste does not come to mind, in order not to keep the audience waiting. Some people are able to do both translation and interpretation. Others find that, for reasons of temperament and personality, they cannot do one or the other. Generally, some experience as a translator provides a good foundation for becoming an interpreter. What is the Difference between Consecutive Interpretation and Simultaneous Interpretation? A consecutive interpreter listens to the speaker, takes notes, and then reproduces the speech in the target language. Depending on the length of the speech, this may be done all at one go or in several segments. The consecutive interpreter relies mainly on memory, but good note-taking technique is an essential aid. A simultaneous interpreter, usually sitting in a soundproof booth, listens to the speaker through earphones and, speaking into a microphone, reproduces the speech in the target language as it is being delivered in the source language. Because the simultaneous interpreter cannot fall too far behind, this method requires considerable practice and presence of mind. Consecutive interpretation was long the standard method, until simul- taneous interpretation was first tried out on a large scale, and found to be workable, at the Nuremberg trials. Thanks to that breakthrough and to 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Introduction: Frequently Asked Questions 3 3 modern sound equipment, simultaneous interpretation has now become the most widely used method, in every type of meeting from business conventions to summit conferences, and can even be done via remote com- munications links. It is much less time-consuming and enables a multi- lingual conference, with participants speaking a number of languages, to proceed without interruption. However, consecutive interpretation is still preferred in certain situations, such as one-on-one interviews, confidential hearings, brief public appearances by prominent persons, or some legal proceedings. It has the advantage of not requiring much equipment. Occasionally, interpreters may be asked to do “whispering” or “chuchotage”, which consists of sitting behind a participant at a meeting and simultaneously interpreting the proceedings sotto voce only for that person. Simultaneous interpreters normally work in teams of two per booth, taking turns in shifts of about 30 minutes each for a maximum of about three hours at a time, which has been found to be the maximum average time during which the necessary concentration and accuracy can be sustained. They generally work only into their “A” (best) language, or their mother tongue. In certain situations (e.g. in a meeting where one language largely predominates), a single team of three people, known as a “petite equipe”, will work both ways, rather than two booths of two people each. The number of languages spoken at the meeting may also determine the make-up of the team. In the United Nations, for example, the standard “English booth” team consists of two interpreters, one of whom interprets from Russian, one of whom interprets from Spanish, and both of whom can interpret from French. For certain language combina- tions, relay, or two-step, interpretation is also sometimes used: a speaker will be interpreted in one booth from language A into language B, and then in another booth from language B into language C. Is it Useful to Specialize in a Particular Subject Area? Yes. It is easier to translate or interpret with an understanding of the subject. Some translators, for example, specialize in medical translation and obtain regular work from pharmaceutical manufacturers. Some trans- lation agencies specialize in technical, business, or legal translation and rely on translators and interpreters with expertise in those areas. Specialist translators can usually command higher fees. Many translators and interpreters make an effort to keep abreast of certain fields in which their language combination is useful. However, most translators and interpreters are of necessity generalists, since it is 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 4 Interpretation 4 Is Simultaneous Interpretation a Stressful Occupation? Yes. The sustained alertness and concentration required to perform this job well have been compared with those required to be an air-traffic controller. However, for that very reason, interpreters’ associations have developed standards governing workload, team strength, and equipment, based on medical studies, which are intended to keep the workload and cumulative stress within reasonable limits. At the UN, for example, simul- taneous interpreters are usually required to cover a maximum of seven three-hour meetings per week, except during peak periods. The average workload at the European Union is somewhat heavier. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Introduction: Frequently Asked Questions 7 7 Chapter 1 Speaking Public speaking is an important part of training to become an interpreter for several reasons. First, many people studious enough to have acquired a thorough grasp of two or more working languages tend to be of a somewhat shy and retiring disposition and, when faced with an audience, may freeze up and develop mental blocks. Second, interpretation assign- ments – especially the better ones – often require interpreters to perform before large audiences of important people, which can be rather intimi- dating even for those of us who are not especially shy. But stage fright can be overcome by the same method that student actors use: rehearsal. Last but not least, an interpreter, like an actor, a talk-show host or a news announcer, must learn how to use his or her voice. In order to understand the kind of language used by public speakers and at international conferences, interpreters should appreciate how it differs from everyday speech. We use language in our daily lives primarily to com- municate information and express feelings. But the main function of lan- guage as used by public speakers such as diplomats, officials, and corporate executives, who are usually acting as spokesmen for groups, is advo- cacy. A campaign speech by a candidate for office is designed to win the listeners’ votes. A speaker praising a public figure is seeking to persuade listeners of that person’s merits. An official making a public explanation or apology for an error or embarrassment is trying to persuade the public to forgive and forget. A diplomat making a lengthy policy statement is try- ing to persuade other diplomats to support her positions by striving to portray her country and its policies in a favorable light. Even a speaker using expository language to relate facts or report information is often doing so in order to support a particular viewpoint, thesis, or proposal. Public speakers have usually acquired some proficiency in the art of persuasion, and interpreters must be able to mirror that skill. So, inter- preters should strive to be good public speakers. An important step in 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 8 becoming an effective public speaker is to learn not only to use one’s skill at expository and descriptive speech but also to draw on one’s own powers of persuasion. Enhancing this skill will also help the interpreter to acquire greater confidence and thus overcome stage fright. Exercises 1 Write an imaginary letter to a public official urging that a law be passed to remedy what you consider to be a serious social problem. What arguments would you use? Read the letter aloud as a speech, record it, listen to it at a later time, and consider what you could have said to make it more convincing. 2 Think of someone you know who would disagree with you about an important question. What arguments could you use to change that person’s mind? Suit your arguments to what you know about that person’s psychology. 3 (a) Choose a significant event from a newspaper and write a 200- word speech commenting on it. Read out the speech into your tape recorder, then listen to it. Was it convincing? Could the speech be improved by changing your delivery, intonation, organization, or diction (choice of words)? If your speech were a broadcast editorial, would listeners pay attention? (b) Listen to the speech again. This time, cast yourself in the role of the opponent or “devil’s advocate”, and write a brief rebuttal speech arguing against what you have just heard. 4 Write a short speech in praise of a public figure whom you admire. Read it out into your tape recorder and listen to it. Would it be convincing to a listener who did not know that public figure? 5 The following statements of opinion on various issues are calculated to be controversial and to spark debate. Choose one of the positions presented and defend that point of view to an imaginary audience of skeptical listeners, first in your mother tongue and then in your other working languages. Then, repeat the exercise, taking the opposite point of view. (a) Se debería prohibir la transmisión por televisión de deportes violentos. El boxeo y la lucha libre, por ejemplo, embrutecen al ser 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Speaking 9 9 (d) Computers are useful tools, but the widespread use of automated word processing programs in schools will eventually make people illiterate, as students will no longer feel any need to learn rules of spelling or grammar. (e) Exploring the far reaches of outer space is a waste of precious resources which could be put to better use alleviating poverty or promoting economic development here on Earth. (f) The city of Portland, Oregon is considering an “anti-panhan- dling” municipal ordinance which would make it illegal for people to sit on sidewalks, but not to sit at a sidewalk café. This proposal unfairly discriminates against the poor. (g) In order to keep the French language alive, Quebec was right to declare it the official language of the province and to require its use in public spaces and on storefront signs, even if that restricts the rights of those who speak English or other languages. (h) Companies should not be allowed indefinitely to keep off the market any useful invention they have patented, such as a break- through drug. If they do not promptly manufacture the invention and make it available for use by the public, the patent should be revoked and awarded to a different company. (i) When armed conflicts cause severe suffering among civilians, the international community should intervene to help even without the consent of the belligerent forces or the governments involved in the conflict. (j) The practice of “warehousing” (keeping dwellings off the market until real-estate prices and rents go up) is anti-competitive. It should be prohibited when housing is in short supply and many are home- less. Landlords who engage in this practice should be fined or required to rent vacant properties at a fair market price. 8 Translate the topics in (7) above into Spanish, French, or your other working languages, and repeat the exercise. 9 In the international fora where interpreters generally work, the funda- mental tension is that between international cooperation and national sovereignty. It is important to understand this overarching (often implicit) debate, because it sheds light on speakers’ intent and often renders intel- ligible positions and statements that may otherwise not be clear. The 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 12 Interpretation 12 following are brief presentations of the arguments for and against “neutrality” or “isolationism”. Prepare a brief speech (two or three minutes) to be given in class, based on one of these two positions. Use any additional arguments or facts you wish. When all class members have spoken, decide by a show of hands which side was more convincingly argued. The “Unilateralist” Argument A great nation should stand on its own record and assert its own iden- tity in international affairs. More is to be gained by leadership, hard-earned prestige, statesmanship and independent judgment than by alliances. Multilateral diplomacy is a treacherous minefield into which wise leaders should not venture lightly. National security demands that we keep our options open and avoid “entangling alliances”. Many nations, such as Switzerland, have prospered for centuries by maintaining scrupulous neutrality and staying aloof from the world’s quarrels. Why should that prudent attitude be labeled “isolationism” when it is practiced, for example, by the United States? The “Multilateralist” Argument One of our time’s great poets, the Syrian-born Adonis, has found a simple way of describing the United States and its present foreign policy: “What strikes me about the States is the richness of American society on the one hand and, on the other, the smallness of its foreign policy.” The struggle in the UN Security Council, when America opposed the International Criminal Court, evoked George Orwell’s novel “Animal Farm,” in which some of the farm’s inhabitants claim that “we are all equal but some are more equal than others.” The compromise reached in the Security Council was based on the fact that an overwhelming majority of the UN member states saw the ICC (International Criminal Court) as a new and vital centerpiece of inter- national law, worth fighting for. How does a superpower wield its power in an interdependent world? Democratic power needs legiti- macy. “For us or against us” is not the best way to attract allies and friends. “If you elect the wrong leader” – Salvador Allende in Chile or Yasser Arafat in Palestine – “it will have consequences” is another disturbing line. That kind of gunboat diplomacy leads to banana- republic democracy. History teaches that cooperation and integration are more successful in achieving positive results than confrontation and unilateralism. Postwar Germany chose to become Gulliverized within European networks and structures. It has even given up the 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Speaking 13 13 mighty Deutschmark for the sake of the euro and Europe. Post- Communist Russia renounced the ambition of trying to become a superpower. Instead it has chosen integration and cooperation, even with former archenemies within NATO. The United States possesses powers and riches never seen before in the world. But to tackle the global challenges of the 21st century and its new security threats, you need a global strategy and a global network. And only the United Nations can provide the necessary legitimacy and sustainability for worldwide common action. Fortress Europe, Fortress USA? That is not only an outdated model, it is also hopelessly counterproductive. The United States is neither a Goliath nor a benign Gulliver, but the essential partner that we want to see, and that we need, in our common quest for global peace, development and democracy. So the United States should think again and let the International Criminal Court prove its worth. It was designed to constrain, prevent, deter and punish the actions of would-be criminals, not of peacekeepers. (Pierre Schori, “What We Need is a Cooperative America”, The International Herald Tribune, 6 August 2002, p. 6 (excerpt)) 10 (a) Read the following argument advocating greater “isolationism” or “unilateralism” by France vis-à-vis Algeria. Evaluate the strength of the argument in light of the conclusions you have reached on this issue in the previous exercise. Does the author use any additional or new arguments that you find persuasive? Algeria: At Arm’s Length “Algeria is France.” That was the byword forever repeated by French political leaders – including François Mitterrand, and excepting General de Gaulle – until 1957. Today, in 1995, 38 years later, Algeria is no longer France. And yet, despite independence, despite the massive, and now complete, departure of the French from Algeria, public opinion is still galvanized by Algeria’s tur- moil: hostage-taking incidents, murders of foreigners on Algerian soil, terrorist attacks in France, acrimonious exchanges and can- celed meetings between leaders – all conveying the feeling that Algeria will never find its way out of the tunnel. That deep concern is due to an attitude that has unreasonably outlived its usefulness among certain political and media circles, an attitude which amounts to conferring a unique quality on rela- tions between France and Algeria, making them somehow differ- ent from those which normally exist between independent states: a “special relationship”, and a posture of “non-interference”. It is 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 14 Interpretation 14 and yet there was something grim and frightening in it; every word was full of meaning and seemed to carry a deadly earnest- ness. Behind the language of peace and friendship there was power and the quivering shadow of action. 11 Using the topics in (5) and (7) above drawn by lot, or other timely topics, assign each student in class to give a brief speech extemporane- ously and without notes. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Speaking 17 17 Chapter 2 Preparation/Anticipating the Speaker Consistently good performance in conference interpreting depends on sustained mental alertness. An interpreter must maintain attention and concentration through many hours of meetings and absorb the contents of lengthy discussions on many subjects. This means keeping fit, notably by getting enough sleep and following good habits of nutrition and exercise. An interpreter must also adopt an attitude of intellectual modesty and willingness to learn, keeping up with changes in his or her languages as well current events and the related jargon. Interpreters must be able to understand and clearly state a wide range of possible ideas and arguments representing different sides of any issue, even arguments which may seem implausible, or with which they may strongly disagree. Gaining familiarity with the subject matter to be discussed at an upcoming assign- ment is important, and attending a meeting in advance will be especially helpful to get a grasp of procedural rules and terms. Careful observation of speakers’ gestures and demeanor, as well as the reactions of listeners, will provide additional clues to the intent behind the words. Knowing the specific themes of a conference in advance and obtaining a copy of the agenda, background documents, list of speakers, and any prepared speeches available can also be very helpful. Many speakers prepare their speeches well in advance of delivery and will gladly give or send a copy to an interpreter who takes the trouble to ask for it. Copies of formal speeches and policy statements by public officials can often be readily obtained from their offices or looked up on their Internet web sites. Sometimes a translation of the speech to be delivered will also be made available by the speaker or his institution (known among interpreters as “a Van Doren”) and can be read out by the interpreter if the translation is of good quality. Yet, despite those elementary precautions, every speech still has its surprises. A speaker may change his or her mind at the last minute, 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 18 discard or amend prepared remarks, and say something quite unex- pected. (Be especially alert to this when the speech is marked “Check Against Delivery”.) And even an experienced interpreter can be caught off guard by a novel idea, an unusual turn of phrase, a breakthrough in the debate, an eccentric speaker, a spur-of-the-moment argument, an impenetrable accent, a mispronounced key word, a halting delivery, poor sound quality, an obscure reference or acronym, or a deliberately ornate way of saying a perfectly simple thing. Overcoming problems of that kind involves a certain amount of intu- ition. Although an interpreter should avoid wild guesses, it is often possible, relying on the context, to “fill in the blanks” of a statement when an element of it is unclear or indistinctly heard. It can be helpful if one tries, by an effort of imagination, to anticipate what the speaker is likely to say, how he or she is likely to say it, and how it can be made compre- hensible to the audience for which one is interpreting. Exercises 1 The next time you plan to hear a public figure make a speech on tele- vision or radio, write out beforehand a rough outline of your “best guess” about what the speaker is likely to say, based on what you know about the person, the circumstances of the speech, the current issues, and the occasion. Then listen to the actual speech and compare it with your notes to see how close your guesses were. 2 Formulate each of the speeches suggested below in your mind. Then deliver it aloud, to a listener, or to a mirror. If you have trouble, try writing out your speech, or speaking from notes. Time yourself. Finally, record your speech, listen to it, and consider possible improvements in your arguments, diction, and speed and rhythm of delivery. (a) You are the spokesperson of an environmental group. You have been allowed to address a legislative panel considering a law to ban all plastic beverage containers. You have ten minutes. (b) Make the same speech as in (a) above, but to an audience of high- school students at a symposium on environmental issues. (c) You are the trade representative of a Central American country at an international conference to promote tourism. In as few words as possible, convince the Air Travel Committee (which is made up mostly of West Indian delegates) that the whole Caribbean region should take a common stand against rising air fares. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Preparation/Anticipating the Speaker 19 19 listen to your performance and consider how well the feeling was conveyed. Keep repeating the exercise until the feeling comes across convincingly. 4 Pretend that you are interpreting the following excerpt of a speech and that a number of words have been obscured by bad pronunciation, conference-room noise, or poor sound quality. Read out the speech into your tape recorder and, relying on the context, fill in the gaps in a way that does not distort the meaning of the sentence as a whole. Try your best to complete every sentence. When you have finished your recording, check your performance against the full text of the speech, given in Chapter 11 (pp. 192–212). Were your guesses close enough to the original? Mr Ouellet: It is a great ______ to represent Canada here today as we celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations during this general debate. M. Ouellet: Alors que nous célébrons le cinquantième anniversaire des Nations Unies durant ce débat général, c’est un insigne ______ pour moi de représenter le Canada aujourd’hui dans cette enceinte. Canada has always been among the strongest supporters of the United Nations, not only in word but also in ______. In 1945 we were, through Canadian ______ Minister Mackenzie King, an original signa- tory of the United Nations Charter. Ambassador John Humphreys helped ______ the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Successive Canadian Ambassadors to the United Nations have distinguished themselves in the ______ of the Organiza- tion, as have countless Canadian negotiators in ______ ranging from disarmament to trade to development. In addition, Lester B. Pearson won a ______ Peace Prize for his contribution to the success of the 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 22 Interpretation 22 “The cat is on the windowsill.” angry / satisfied / frustrated / puzzled / skeptical “The bus is at the corner.” relieved / annoyed / pleased / despairing “I have bought the newspaper.” apologetic / amused / solemn / cheery/ weary “The bed has been made.” overjoyed / admonitory / irate / defensive “The phone is out of order.” overawed / despondent / emphatic / uncertain United Nations in establishing the first peace-______ operation, in 1956. Notre pays a toujours été l’un des plus ardents défenseurs de l’ONU, en paroles comme en ______. En 1945, le Canada, en la personne du ______ Ministre canadien, Mackenzie King, a été l’un des premiers pays signataires de la Charte des Nations Unies. L’Ambassadeur John Humphreys a participé à la ______ de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme de l’ONU, en 1948. Les ambassadeurs successifs du Canada auprès de cette organisation se sont distingués dans leur travail au ______ de l’Organisation, tout comme l’ont fait d’innombrables négociateurs canadiens dans des ______ allant du désarmement au commerce et au développement. M. Lester B. Pearson, quant à lui, s’est vu décerner le prix ______ de la paix pour avoir contribué au succès de la première opération de maintien ______ montée par l’ONU en 1956. All these Canadians had a unifying purpose: to promote progress in ______ the United Nations Charter, which enshrines the commitment of the people of the United Nations to the ______ of humanity. Tous ces Canadiens avaient un objectif commun: promouvoir le progrès en ______ la Charte des Nations Unies, laquelle exprime la volonté des peuples des Nations Unies à s’employer à favoriser ______ de l’humanité. Of course, there have been criticisms of the Organization; many are legitimate and require ______. It is clear, however, that the interna- tional ______ remains committed to the goals of the Charter and to the United Nations as the primary instrument for global problem ______. Bien sûr, l’Organisation a fait l’objet de critiques. Un grand nombre d’entre elles sont fondées et méritent qu’on leur ______. II est clair cependant que la ______ internationale demeure résolue à atteindre les buts de la Charte et voit dans l’ONU un excellent instrument pour ______ les problèmes mondiaux. The United Nations deserves our continued support. If we look at the ______ of just the last few years, the United Nations has conducted ______ peace-keeping operations in Cambodia, Mozambique and Haiti. Thanks to the United Nations, in this decade alone 5 million children will grow up normally, children who would ______ have been paralysed by polio. This year the United Nations is ______, as it does every year, to ensure a better life for the almost 23 million refugees in the world. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Preparation/Anticipating the Speaker 23 23 Les Nations Unies méritent que nous continuions de leur accorder notre soutien. Si l’on fait seulement le ______ des dernières années, on constate que l’Organisation a mené des opérations de maintien de la paix ______ au Cambodge, au Mozambique et en Haïti. Dans cette seule décennie, cinq millions d’enfants grandiront normalement, alors que ______ ils auraient été paralysés par la polio. En 1995, l’ONU ______ pour offrir à près de 23 millions de réfugiés dans le monde une meilleure vie. (Statement by the Honourable André Ouellet, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Canada, UN General Assembly, Official Records, A/50/PV7) 5 Repeat the above exercise with other speeches (e.g. those presented in Chapter 10, pp. 173–190), as follows. Make a photocopy of the speech. With a black marker, blot out key words in each paragraph of the photo- copy. Lay the speech aside overnight. Then, do a sight-translation of the photocopy of the speech trying to “fill in the blanks”, and record your performance. Check yourself against the original. 6 Repeat the exercise again with a new photocopy. This time, blot out the final words of key sentences in each paragraph. When you do the sight-translation, try to finish the sentences in a way that makes sense without altering the main thrust of the sentence. Check yourself against the original. In those cases where you were not able to reconstruct the original meaning intended, consider whether it would have been better to take an educated guess or to drop the entire sentence rather than risk getting it wrong. This depends on your judgment and on the context in which the sentence appears. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 24 Interpretation 24 Reduced to its bare essentials, the sentence above contains the following ideas: (a) Ambassador X has been very busy. (b) He has been very busy co-ordinating the work of the G-77. (c) The Group of 77 plays an important role. (d) The Group of 77 has positions on many issues. (e) Those issues are very important to the international community. (f) Those issues are being continuously discussed as part of an effort to establish a new international economic order. (g) Those issues include: economic, social, environmental, aid, devel- opment, and institutional reform issues. If, due to the speaker’s speed, you managed to interpret all of these ideas except (c), that would be a minor omission, because (c) so obviously flows from the rest that it is almost a superfluous statement of the obvious. The same applies to idea (d). On the other hand, if the entire sentence and all of the ideas got lost or garbled because you were struggling to make sense of the ambiguous syntactic links, that would be a more serious error. Try to translate the above sentence as a single unit. Next, try to trans- late it using the “piece by piece” strategy. Then, compare the two transla- tions and ask yourself: (a) Which approach yielded the better result? (b) Which took longer? (c) Which is more complete? (d) Which is more accurate? (e) Which is stylistically superior? 2 In order to improve your skill at using the “piece by piece” strategy with complex structures, try to decide which syntactic cues in the orig- inal statement are logically necessary and which are not. For example, in “I fell down the stairs and therefore have a broken leg” is the word there- fore logically necessary? Isn’t the causal link just as obvious if I say “I fell down the stairs and have a broken leg”? When the logical links between the parts of a complex structure are self-evident from the meaning of the parts, you are only slowing yourself down and running the risk of muddling the message if you try to translate all of them. In this regard, it is important to remember what assumptions you can safely make about the knowledge of your audience and what actually needs to be spelled out for them. If I am interpreting a speech to an audi- ence of professional physicists and I hear “the theory of relativity, which 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Complex Syntax/Compression 27 27 was formulated by Einstein”, do I need to treat the words which was formulated by as a logically necessary syntactic cue? “Einstein’s theory of relativity” will do just as well, will save time, and will actually sound less patronizing. On the other hand, I might want to spell it out if the audience consisted of schoolchildren. Once you have mastered the “piece by piece” strategy, you will some- times find it easier to interpret complex structures all in one piece, because you will be more accustomed to deciphering the parts of the whole puzzle and how they are supposed to fit together, and better able to supply the necessary syntactic cues in the target language. 3 The following sentences appeared in a statement by a Latin-American speaker. Identify the main idea and the secondary or qualifying ideas in each sentence; then, try to translate them by forming one sentence containing the main idea and separate, short sentences containing the secondary, supporting, or qualifying ideas: Las restricciones unilaterales y arbitrarias impuestas recientemente a mi país por distintos Estados industrializados, sobre sus exporta- ciones de banano, flores y productos del mar, son clara muestra de que los esfuerzos nacionales que llevan adelante los países en desarrollo por diversificar sus exportaciones y fortalecer los sectores más competitivos de sus economías, son insuficientes si se mantiene el actual entorno económico internacional, en especial si no se llevan acciones en favor de un reordenamiento de los mercados internacionales. Un reordenamiento de la acción de los organismos de Bretton Woods en la provisión de recursos adicionales y estables para los proyectos de desarrollo llevados adelante por los Estados y las agencias espe- cializadas, sobre la base de directrices y políticas acordadas por la comunidad internacional en el ECOSOC, tras las consultas del caso, es una inciativa que permitiría hacer frente a las exigencias de la magnitud que el momento requiere. 4 (a) The following sentence appeared in a statement by an African delegate: Si, en ce qui concerne le premier aspect des engagements pris dans le cadre de cet important accord, la responsabilité du gouvernement est quasi-exclusive, il n’en va pas de même en ce qui concerne le deuxième aspect. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 28 Interpretation 28 First, translate the sentence following the original order of phrases. Then, divide it into two sentences, the first beginning with “En ce qui concerne . . .” and the second beginning with “Il n’en va pas de même . . .” Which version is clearer? Was it necessary to translate the word “Si . . .”? (b) The following sentence is from the same speech: La situation au Libéria vient de connaître, après une série d’ini- tiatives ayant abouti à la mise en place du nouveau conseil d’état, une évolution positive réelle. First, translate the sentence following the original order of phrases. Then, translate it again starting with “Après une série . . .” (the longest phrase). Which version is clearer? Notice that, even if the syntactic link “après” is not translated at all, the causal relationship is still quite clear: “A series of initiatives has led to the creation of a new council of state. The situation in Liberia has really changed for the better.” (c) The following sentence is from the same speech: Mon pays, qui avait favorablement accueilli la pression militaire exercée sur les Serbes par notre organisation et l’OTAN au mois de Septembre dernier, salue chaleureusement les dernières initia- tives de paix, conduites par les Etats Unis d’Amérique, qui tendent vers le retour de la paix dans cette région. First, translate the sentence following the original order of phrases. Then, translate it again as follows: Delete “qui” (the third word); start a new sentence with “salue” by repeating the subject (“Le Niger” or “Nous”). Are the two translations the same in meaning? Which is clearer? 5 The following passage is from a statement by a Latin-American delegate: Reiteramos la necesidad de establecer al desarrollo alternativo como elemento prioritario de cualquier enfoque. Dicha estrategia, orientada a prevenir y solucionar los problemas generados por los cultivos ilíc- itos, propone, no solo la sustitución de cultivos sino que, en esencia, busca la plena incorporación de los grupos sociales involucrados en esta actividad a una economía lícita, a traves de planes y programas que pongan en marcha un sistema de desarrollo socio-economico de naturaleza integral, que tenga especialmente en cuenta a los actores 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Complex Syntax/Compression 29 29 7 Ambivalent conjunctions Ambivalent conjunctions placed at the beginning of a sentence can create problems in interpretation. If the inter- preter ascribes the wrong meaning to the conjunction, the interpretation of the rest of the sentence will turn out wrong, and there will usually be no way to correct it because there will not be time. For example, the word “since” may mean (a) from the time when, or (b) due to the fact that. How is a Spanish interpreter to know whether to begin his sentence with “Desde que . . .” or “Puesto que . . .”? Rather than take a 50% chance of being wrong, it is better to delete the initial conjunc- tion and insert the needed concept at a later point in the sentence: • Since my government began making contributions to this program 20 years ago, we will not stop supporting it now. = Mi gobierno comenzó a contribuir a este programa hace 20 años; por consigu- iente, no cesaremos de hacerlo hoy. • Since my government began making contributions to this program 20 years ago, it has scored many successes. = Mi gobierno comenzó a contribuir a este programa hace 20 años; desde entonces el programa ha registrado muchos logros. (a) Translate the following sentences without translating the initial “since”, and dividing them into more than one sentence if it seems desirable for ease or clarity: • Since the Middle East peace process was set in motion by the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991, the Republic of Korea has consistently held the view that peace cannot be whole without reconciliation between Israel and Syria, and between Israel and Lebanon. • Since the Thai Government has long supported the Middle East peace process, the termination of the state of war between Jordan and Israel, announced in Washington in July this year, following last year’s historic agreement between Israel and the PLO, gives all of us reason to rejoice. • Since the success of this first meeting, the ASEAN Regional Forum has become a viable forum for the promotion of trust as well as political and security cooperation within the Asia- Pacific region. (b) In the example given above (“Since my government began making contributions . . .”), is the word “since” a logically necessary syntactic cue? Would the meaning be sufficiently clear if the 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 32 Interpretation 32 ambivalent conjunction were omitted altogether, or replaced by a simple “and”? Consider the following: • My government began making contributions to this program 20 years ago. We will not stop supporting it now. • My government began making contributions to this program 20 years ago, and we will not stop supporting it now. • My government began making contributions to this program 20 years ago. It has scored many successes. • My government began making contributions to this program 20 years ago, and it has scored many successes. (c) Is the “since” in the three sentences given in (a) above logically necessary in each case? (d) The French word “si”, which can mean either “if” or “although”, presents a similar problem, which can be tackled by the same strategy. What other ambivalent conjunctions can you think of in each of your working languages? 8 Enumerations A structure that can pose problems in both translation and interpretation is the “shopping list”. The problem arises because the speaker may or may not use parallel construction in rattling off a long list of items, or because not all of the items may be translatable in the same parallel grammatical form, e.g. with verbs, nouns, or gerunds, in the target language. The interpreter struggling to maintain the grammatical paral- lelism of an enumeration delivered at high speed can easily be thrown off. It is important to recall that parallelism is only a stylistic requirement and does not necessarily affect meaning. But the fact remains that, at least in English, failure to observe parallelism produces a very awkward- sounding result. An item in a list that is not grammatically parallel to the others “sticks out like a sore thumb”, for example: Our agricultural plan includes several new projects: • building dams • increasing arable land area • to build more grain storage silos • producing more irrigation equipment. There are several ways to handle shopping lists. Although the main concern is to make sure you translate all of the items, the translator or 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Complex Syntax/Compression 33 33 interpreter should, ideally, try to preserve parallelism in the target language even if it is missing from the original. This can often be done, especially when the speaker announces in advance that he is about to give a list of items, e.g. “In the next five years my company will shoot for the following seven goals” or “During the Decade to Combat Desertification, my government will introduce the following five programs.” The introductory sentence or “chapeau” should make it clear that what follows is a list of items. Then, the interpreter will have some freedom to maneuver, and can, if possible, maintain parallelism, or, if it is not possible, rephrase the list as necessary. If the parallelism breaks down half-way through the list, the interpreter can (if time permits) repeat the introductory construction or resort to using a new sentence or phrase for each item. In the following example, notice that there is no dramatic difference in meaning between the various ways of handling a list, so that any of these ways which permits you to keep up with the speaker and cover all of the items mentioned would be acceptable: Mi gobierno tiene planificadas varias iniciativas para lograr nuestras metas en la esfera de la educación: la formación de más efectivos docentes, la construcción de más escuelas, el suministro de becas adicionales, la ayuda a familias de zonas rurales que carecen de escuelas, la edición de libros escolares económicos, y el mejoramiento de la programación educativa en los canales de televisión. • My government’s plans for education include: training more teachers, building more schools, providing more scholarships, helping families in rural areas lacking schools, publishing afford- able textbooks, and improving educational television programs. • To improve education, my government plans: to train more teachers, to build more schools, to provide more scholarships, to help families in rural areas lacking schools, to publish affordable textbooks, and to improve educational programs. • My government’s plans for education include training of more teachers, building of more schools, provision of more scholar- ships, help to families in rural areas lacking schools, publication of affordable textbooks, and improvement of educational television programs. • To improve education my government will train more teachers, build more schools, provide more scholarships, help families in 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 34 Interpretation 34 (f) Translate the following shopping list into English or French, or other working languages, by starting with a general statement and then making each and every item into an independent sentence with its own verb: Los diferentes seguros sociales pueden diferir en algún punto, pero sus elementos principales son: • financiación mediante cotizaciones, por lo común tanto de los trabajadores como de los empleadores, y a menudo con partic- ipación del Estado; • afiliación obligatoria; • ingreso de cotizaciones en cajas especiales con cargo a las cuales se satisfacen las prestaciones; • inversión de los excedentes para obtener mayores ingresos; • garantía de las prestaciones sobre la base del historial contribu- tivo personal, independientemente de los recursos económicos (por ejemplo, los ingresos y el patrimonio); • cotizaciones y prestaciones muy a menudo proporcionales a los ingresos del afiliado; • en general, la financiación de las prestaciones de accidentes del trabajo y enfermedades laborales suele estar únicamente a cargo de los empleadores. (ILO, Seguridad Social, ILO, Geneva, 1995, p. 7) (g) Translate the following passage into English, Spanish, or other working languages, preserving parallelism to the extent possible: Notification du transit de missiles à portée intermédiaire ou à plus courte portée ou de lanceurs de tels missiles, ou du déplace- ment de missiles d’entraînement ou de lanceurs d’entraînement pour missiles à portée intermédiaire ou à plus courte portée, au plus tard 48 heures après son achèvement, notamment: (i) Le nombre de missiles ou de lanceurs; (ii) Le point, la date et l’heure de départ et d’arrivée; (iii) Le mode de transport utilisé; (iv) L’emplacement et l’heure à cet emplacement au moins une fois tous les quatre jours durant la période de transit. (Treaty on intermediate-range missiles between the US and the USSR of 8 December 1987, Désarmement, Vol XI, No. 1, Winter 1987–1988, p. 209 (excerpt)) 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Complex Syntax/Compression 37 37 (h) Translate the following passage into French, Spanish, or other working languages, preserving parallelism to the extent possible: The ozone layer, a fragile shield which protects the Earth from the harmful portion of the rays of the sun (namely, excess solar UV-B radiations) is being damaged by man-made chemicals released on Earth. The main danger from the weakening of this shield is that it could lead to a rising intensity of the ground level UV-B radiation. This in turn could lead to increased rates of skin cancer and eye cataracts, to stunted agricultural production, and to the possible disappearance of phytoplankton – organisms which form the base of the marine food chain. The main chemi- cals involved are CFCs (used in refrigeration, aerosols and as cleaners in many industries), halons (used in fire extinguishers), methyl bromide (used mainly for soil fumigation in agriculture) and some industrial solvents. Because CFCs and other chemicals remain in the atmosphere for decades, the ozone layer will be at its most vulnerable over the next decade. The most important and effective measure included in the Montreal Protocol is the commitment to limit the use of, and to gradually phase out, all of these man-made chemicals (known as ozone depleting substances, or ODSs) . . . Activities expected to take place in coun- tries all over the world as part of the celebration of the second International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer include: • Honouring industries which are phasing out ODSs, and sharing their experience with others; • Honouring individual scientists, technologists, media persons and administrators who are assisting in the phase-out of ODSs; • Broadcasting television and radio programmes related to the protection of the ozone layers; • Publication of articles on the International Ozone Day in the printed media; • Organization of scientific and technological conferences, meet- ings and workshops to discuss the ozone layer . . .; • Organization of competitions for schools on the awareness of the ozone problem; and • Involving non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in these activities. (UNEP News Release 1996/49 (excerpt)) 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 38 Interpretation 38 9 De-verbalization The first step in good interpreting is to “get beyond the words”. The words are nothing more than a container for the ideas. The interpreter must pour those ideas into a new container: the target language. A useful term coined by Spanish interpreters to refer to this mental process is desverbalización, which might be translated as “de- verbalizing” or “de-wording” the speech. Another way of describing this mental process is to say that inter- preting a speech involves two translations: first, the words of the original are translated into a mental image; then, the mental image is translated into the words of the target language. So, the accuracy of the translation depends on how accurate a mental image one can form from the original meaning. As Boileau observed: Ce que l’on conçoit bien s’énonce clairement, Et les mots pour le dire arrivent aisément. The second step in this three-step process is, in a sense, non-verbal. One way to practice de-verbalizing is to practice going from a verbal mode of communication to a non-verbal mode, or vice versa. (a) Close your eyes and form a mental image of what you did this morning. Write out a few brief sentences describing what you did. Then, translate each sentence into a rough sketch on a separate sheet of paper. Then, translate each picture back into the sentence that inspired it, but in a different language. (b) From a photo album choose some photos that portray group gath- erings or interaction. Try to remember what the people actually did and said to each other on that occasion. Write out a brief narrative, with dialogue, for each photo, on a separate sheet of paper. Then, repeat the exercise, but in a different language. (c) Watch a television program in which you know the characters. Wait for a dialogue. Turn off the sound during the dialogue, and try to preserve the image of the situation in your mind’s eye. Finish the dialogue in your mind as you think the characters would have finished it. (d) The next time you overhear a group of people talking in a public place, try to remember the scene and the dialogue you heard. Later on, write out a narrative of the scene and the dialogue in a different language. (e) Choose an interesting news story from a newspaper. Read it carefully and form a mental picture of the people and events reported. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Complex Syntax/Compression 39 39 words and expressions, in English or in your other languages, which can serve to sum up or recapitulate what has been said? Are the French words “Ainsi, . . .”, “Donc, . . .”, and “Or, . . .” anaphoric markers? Are the Spanish expressions “Ahora bien, . . .”, “Así pues, . . .”, and “Por ello, . . .” anaphoric markers? These and others are often translatable into English by the word Accordingly, . . . . How many others can you think of, in each of your working languages? Personification Finally, when interpreting into English, personifica- tion of documents or gatherings is another helpful device to save precious syllables and seconds. For example, once the speaker has made it clear that he or she is quoting from or referring to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, wordy phrases such as “Il est prévu dans le Pacte sur les Droits Civils et Politiques que . . .” can be shortened to “The Covenant provides that . . .”; “Le rapport fait figurer dans son annexe . . . .” can be shortened to “The report annexes . . .”. Obviously, it is not the document itself that “provides” or “annexes” but this is a natural and often-used form of personification in everyday spoken English (e.g. “today’s paper said that . . .”, “the record shows that . . .” etc.) which rarely causes any confusion. (Personification can also be used with inan- imate objects and with meetings or organizations, e.g. “The hospital triage desk stopped each arriving stretcher to check the patient’s identity”; “The chamber of commerce cleaned the streets during the city’s budget crisis.”) Note that another form of personification, “changing the subject”, is also a useful device for interpreting into English the abstract passive constructions that are so often used in French and Spanish. For example, “Queda prohibido en las leyes de mi pais, Mexico, enajenar propiedades conteniendo yacimientos de hidrocarburos sin efectuar previamente las solicitudes del caso ante la autoridad competente” can be more easily and quickly interpreted if the passive construction is turned into an active construction, and one way of doing this is to change the subject (without changing the meaning): “We in Mexico prohibit assignment of lands containing hydrocarbon deposits without first obtaining the required authorizations.” (a) In each of the following sentences you will find a phrase in brackets containing two highlighted words. Without changing the meaning of the sentences, translate them into English by eliminating one of those two words. Example: A la fin de l’élection, (le décompte des voix) se fera en séance publique. = At the end of the election, the tally will take place at a public meeting. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 42 Interpretation 42 • (El último año transcurrido) ha sido crucial para el futuro del Oriente Medio. • (La celebración de las elecciones) palestinas deberá conducir al establecimiento de un gobierno democrático. • La Unión Europea quisiera rendir tributo a (los esfuerzos emprendidos) por las partes. • El Presidente del Consejo de la Unión (realizó una gira) por la región. • Acogimos con satisfacción (la reanudación de negociaciones) entre Israel y Siria. • Para que el proceso de paz (se salde con éxito), es impre- scindible que la negociación política esté acompañada de progreso económico. • Le programme doit être réalisé (dans un délai d’une année). • Tout (projet envisagé) sera discuté en détail. • Le monde reconnaît les (sacrifices consentis) par ces soldats courageux. • Le groupe de travail se fera un devoir (d’effectuer immédi- atement le démarrage) de ce programme d’études. • Tôt ou tard, ce processus (aboutira à une conclusion heureuse). • Nous vous prions, Monsieur le Président, de faire connaître à l’assemblée la (conclusion à laquelle nous sommes arrivés). (b) Translate the following sentences into English. Where a docu- ment is mentioned, attribute the statement to the document itself, e.g. “The Declaration says . . .”. • Il est prévu dans la constitution de mon pays que l’égalité entre les sexes doit être respectée dans la fonction publique. • Dans la déclaration que nous avons adoptée l’an dernier, nous avons annoncé le début de la décennie de l’enfance. • Les peines prévues au code pénal pour ce genre de délit ne sont pas très sévères. • Queda constancia en las actas de la conferencia que no hubo acuerdo alguno sobre esta cuestión. • Se ha previsto en la ley laboral que todo trabajador industrial tendrá por lo menos un día de descanso semanal. • En los libros de historia se ha dicho mil veces que los actos de agresión siempre se castigan. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Complex Syntax/Compression 43 43 Parenthetical phrases Like general adverbial clauses (see Chapter 5), parenthetical phrases or clauses can usually be moved to another posi- tion in the sentence and can often stand on their own. It is therefore important for an interpreter to be alert to them, since the ability to move part of a sentence to a later position in the sentence helps the interpreter to cope with complexity and speed. In the following example, notice that there are two ways to simplify the syntax of the sentence: first, by deleting a superfluous noun; second, by rephrasing and/or moving the paren- thetical phrase in bold type. We welcome this conference, the convening of which has long been called for by developing countries, as a sign of hope for the future. • Drop superfluous noun: We welcome this conference, which has long been called for by developing countries, as a sign of hope for the future. • Reword parenthetical phrase: We welcome this conference (the developing countries have long called for it) as a sign of hope for the future. / We welcome this conference as a sign of hope for the future. The developing countries have long called for it. (c) Reformulate the following sentences using this approach: • We cannot tell our farmers, whose hard work on their crops has been destroyed by the drought, that the irrigation project must now be canceled. • The operation, whose modest beginnings did not foreshadow such success, has achieved all of its goals in record time. • Les quelques soldats restants, qui croyaient les conflits de la crise surmontés, furent surpris de voir les forces opposantes ouvrir le feu encore une fois. • L’économie nationale, dont les vicissitudes avaient longue- ment inquiété la Banque Mondiale, a commencé à donner quelques signes de vie. • La especie marina estudiada, que parecía estar en mayor peligro de desaparecer, ha recuperado paulatinamente y repoblado las aguas costeras. • Al llegar a la montaña, desde cuya cumbre se pueden ver todos los campos de nuestros agricultores, el equipo debe evaluar las perspectivas de expansión de este cultivo. (d) Using the same approach, translate the sentences into another working language. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 44 Interpretation 44 very often, if you can think of the right verb in the target language, it will remind you of the word you are searching for to translate the object. And, if you can think of the right word for the object, it will remind you of the word you need to translate the verb. Similarly, calling the right adjective to mind will often remind you of the noun you need, and vice versa. 2 Study the examples of word clusters given in Chapter 7 (pp. 67–116). In a newspaper or magazine article of your own choosing, find and underline examples of verb + object clusters and of noun + adjective clusters. In a newspaper or magazine article of your own choosing, find and underline examples of other kinds of word clusters that constitute units of meaning, such as idiomatic expressions, proverbs, clichés, figures of speech, stock phrases, phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, etc. Repeat this exercise in each of your languages. 3 (a) Connect the verb with the appropriate object: 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Word Order/Clusters 47 47 exert tribute set efforts frame goals pay proposals remit an apology proffer a will draft an injury sustain funds entertain a statement overrule entry retract a motion gain an objection endorse a truce declare an agreement lift a proposal conclude sanctions (b) Connect the noun with the most suitable adjective: 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 48 Interpretation 48 administer an embargo rectify a supposition impose an oath corroborate an error wild attack savage competition unbridled wilderness untamed animal steadfast faction radical position extreme stand uncompromising resolve falling memory declining rocks fading hold tenuous economy grim predicament inevitable plight desperate prospect hopeless fate troublesome habit relentless feature worrisome harassment irksome contingency 4 Rewrite the following sentences in English, treating the phrase in bold type as a single unit of meaning and finding a more concise expression for that unit of meaning. Then, translate the sentences in the same manner. Example: Ghana has shown the will and readiness to come to the help of nations in distress. = Ghana has shown solidarity toward nations in distress. = Le Ghana a fait preuve de solidarité envers des pays en détresse. = Ghana a mostrado solidaridad hacia países asediados de problemas. • Thanks to the end of the cold war, the political landscape in Europe has changed and has impacted positively, if only with partial success, on Cambodia, Mozambique, and the Middle East. • One must recognize that no progress would have been possible without the exemplary statesmanship of the leaders involved in finding solutions. • Somalia and Liberia are coming close to being written off, as Afghanistan has been. • Small states like Ghana are being called upon to bear the burden of securing a peaceful world. • Ghana is directly face to face with the ambitions, rivalries, preju- dices, misconceptions, and lack of common purpose even within ECOWAS and with the misrepresentations that have made the solution of the problem elusive. • Nations are unwilling to get involved in conflicts far from their shores and in respect of which their national interests are not manifest to their electorates. • Security in this final decade of the 20th century . . . must involve people – how they live and how they exercise their choices. • There is another bright spot giving all of us hope for a more peaceful world. 5 Translate the following sentences, treating the verb + object cluster as a unit and finding an equivalent idiomatic unit of meaning in the target language. Example: Este cuadro idílico había sufrido una alteración. = That idyllic picture had undergone a change. = Ce tableau idyllique avait subi une modification. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Word Order/Clusters 49 49 deregulated non-profit mass transit system / self-activated retro- fitted jet aircraft canopy / self-motivating savvy dynamic execu- tive officer / uneconomical remotely located low-grade iron ore deposits / highly imaginative high-flying advertising ideas-man / low-sodium high-fiber weight-loss diet / strict repeat-offender felony sentencing guidelines / safety-conscious built-in redundancy systems / mass-produced modular housing unit design specifications / wide- spread chronic glandular dysfunction / intractable ongoing partisan policy dispute / unilaterally enacted non-tariff trade barriers / consensus-based multilateral environmental standards / bicameral popularly elected representative assembly / internationally recog- nized civil and political rights / voluntary effluent and emission industry standards / recurrent large-scale human rights violations / grass-roots private sector activity / double bottom-line consid- erations / universally accessible web-based global information clearinghouse / remotely operated seabed core-sampling vehicle 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 52 Interpretation 52 Chapter 5 General Adverbial Clauses A general adverbial clause modifies the main verb in the sentence. It is often used to set the scene for the rest of the sentence. The following two examples are taken from a speech made by the representative of Belarus at the 48th session of the UN General Assembly. First is a trans- lation following the original phrasing or structure, then the official English translation as it appeared in the UN Official Records after being interpreted and edited. Example 1 Original structure: Let us take a look at this experience and potential in those areas which, as is widely recognized and attested to even by this current debate, have become very important for preserving world peace and security. Official English version: Let us take a look at this experience and potential in those areas which have become very important for preserving global peace and security, as is widely recognized and attested to even by this current debate. Example 2 Original structure: Taking an authoritative position on these issues, Belarus intends to present during this session of the General Assembly, on behalf of and on the instructions of the states of Commonwealth of Independent States, a joint declaration of the CIS on issues of the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their delivery systems. Official English version: Taking an authoritative position on these issues, Belarus, on behalf of and on the instructions of the states of the Commonwealth of Independent States, intends during this session to present a joint declaration by the CIS on issues of the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their delivery systems. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 53 These two passages illustrate a feature which is very important to trans- lators and invaluable to interpreters: the fact that a general adverbial clause modifying the main verb (also known to some grammarians an “absolute phrase” because it can stand alone) can be put in any one of several different positions (regardless of where it appears in the original language) without doing violence to the meaning. In Example 1 the basic subject–complement structure of the sentence is “areas are becoming”, and in English the general adverbial clause (marked in bold type) could go before the verb, or after the verb, or even at the end of the sentence, as has been done in the official version. In Example 2, the basic subject– complement structure of the sentence is “Belarus intends to present a declaration”, and the two general adverbial clauses (marked in bold type) could also go in several different positions, or could be combined together (“Belarus intends, during this session, on behalf of and on the instruc- tions of . . .”), or could even be combined and inserted at the end in a separate sentence (“We shall do so during this session, on behalf of and on the instructions of . . .”). A short adverbial clause can also be squeezed in between two parts of a composite verb, as has been done with “during this session” in Example 2 above (between the auxiliary “intends” and “to present”). Notice that this feature gives one much greater leeway in interpreting than if one were forced to follow the original sequence of phrases. If the adverbial clause is short, one can slip it in before or after the verb (“We intend, at this session, to declare . . .” or “We intend to declare at this session . . .”) or place it before the subject (“At this session we intend to declare . . .”). If it is long enough that leaving it in the middle tends to disrupt the sentence (as in Example 1 above), one can save it for the end of the sentence. Or, if speed is a problem, one can save it, making an inde- pendent sentence out of the adverbial clause and slipping it in during the speaker’s pause between sentences (“We shall do so at this session.”). Exercises 1 In the sentences given below, identify the basic subject-complement structure of the sentence; identify the general adverbial clauses that modify the main verb; then, translate the sentences into English in as many different ways as you can without altering the basic meaning: • Teniendo en cuenta todos los antecedentes, debemos proceder con suma cautela en una materia tan delicada. • Dada la urgencia del problema, mi país no ha escatimado ningún esfuerzo para resolverlo dentro de un plazo razonable. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 54 Interpretation 54 Chapter 6 Untranslatability There is a grain of truth to the proverb “Traduttore, traditore”. No matter how good the translation, something always seems to be lost. It is that “untranslatable” residue of meaning that cannot be brought out in the target language which leads some linguists to proclaim that in a theoreti- cal sense translation is “impossible”. However, it will help the translator or interpreter to recall that “untranslatability” is chiefly due to the inher- ent features of cultures and languages, not to the individual abilities of the translator or the limitations of the craft. The problem of “untranslatability” arises from the fact that different cultures divide up the universe in different ways, and that their languages therefore contain ideas, words, and expressions to describe those different concepts and culture-specific features. To cite some familiar examples, the languages of desert peoples have many words for different aspects of a feature of the physical world that English speakers simply call “sand”, the Inuit language has many words for “ice”, French has many words to describe the qualities of wine (e.g. “gouleyant” and “charpenté”), which cannot be very satisfactorily translated into English, etc. However, linguists have shown (e.g. with experiments on color per- ception) that the vocabulary of our native language only determines what we can say about the world, not whether we can perceive it. If the word “Ouch!” did not exist, an English speaker would still feel pain when hitting a thumb with a hammer, but the English translator would have one less English word available to translate “Zut!” Consequently, specific real- ities singled out by the source language should not be treated as if they were hopelessly unrecognizable to speakers of the target language simply because speakers of the target language “don’t have a word for it”. Rather, the interpreter should try to devise some way of getting the idea across. In some cases, the problem of “untranslatability” really is insurmount- able, and the translator, after scouring through all the dictionaries on the 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 57 shelf, is finally reduced to leaving the word in the original language and inserting an explanatory footnote or paraphrase, while the interpreter is reduced to paraphrasing, describing, keeping the untranslatable world in the original, or skipping the word. But one must not confuse difficulty with untranslatability. There are many ways to translate words and expressions that do not travel well from one language to another, and quite often “untranslatability” is a misnomer, because an exact or complete translation is not necessary, and an approximate equivalent may be all that is needed in a given context. Dealing with the problem of “untranslatable” utterances requires one to bear in mind that the same idea may find expression in different ways from one culture to another. It involves asking questions like the following: What am I translating? A word? An idea? The name of a concrete object or of an abstraction? The title of a person? The name of a cultural institution or artifact? A technical term? A specialized use of an ordinary word? An archaic word? An idiomatic expression? The expression of an emotion? An image? A figure of speech? A newly-coined term? Should I look for a different part of speech (e.g. a noun rather than an adjective)? Is there anything in my culture which occupies roughly the same place or which plays roughly the same role? Is there anything in my culture that is thought of or talked about in a comparable way? Is the target audience expecting a complete translation? Does the context or the sub-text make clear the untranslatable implications? Sometimes an apparent case of “untranslatability” can be solved by finding the equivalent register, or level of language. For example, the speeches of Winston Churchill might provide a good model to help you translate a speech by Charles de Gaulle; or, at the other end of the spec- trum, American urban “rap” or old Chicago gangster-slang might provide an equivalent register with which to translate a French screenplay containing Marseilles “argot du milieu”. Because meaning is largely contextual, the context in which a word appears may at first make the word seem “untranslatable”. But this is often a problem of “not seeing the forest for the trees”. The French word corde may variously mean “cord” or “string” or “rope”, but if you are translating the French expression “Il pleut des cordes”, you need not wonder which to choose, because what you are actually translating is a French colloquial idiom conveying the idea of very heavy rainfall, and the best translation would be the English or Spanish idiom commonly used in that situation: “It’s raining cats and dogs” / “Llueve a cántaros”. In the Spanish expression régimen carcelario the adjective may at first seem untranslatable because English does not have a special adjectival 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 58 Interpretation 58 form corresponding to the noun “prison” or “jail”, but if you focus on the sense of the whole phrase rather than the word, you can immediately see that the best English equivalent is “police state”. Similarly, equivalents can often be found for seemingly “untranslat- able” recent coinages or neologisms if one pauses to consider the social context in which they are used. If a French speaker tried to translate the contemporary American coinage “yuppie” by searching for a one-word equivalent in French, he probably would never find one. But if one asks, “What kind of person is a ‘yuppie’ in America, and what do we call people like that in France when we want to poke fun at them?”, one will prob- ably hit upon the ironic expressions “jeune cadre dynamique” or possibly “BCBG”, both of which are close enough to the meaning of “yuppie”: a young, ambitious, stylish social-climber. If we look in dictionaries and thesauruses for a one-word English equivalent of the contemporary Japanese word karoshi (“death from over- work”), we will probably not find one. But if we ask ourselves, “What’s the phrase we most often use in talking about overworked executives running themselves into the ground?”, we will probably hit upon the term “executive stress”, which is weaker than karoshi but would probably be an adequate translation in most contexts. In tackling an “untranslatable” word or expression, consider using other parts of speech, or figures of speech. In an entertaining book about “untranslatable” words, They Have a Word for It (Jeremy P. Tarcher Inc., Los Angeles, 1988), Howard Rheingold includes the French word dirigiste. True, the word itself is not easily translatable by any single English word. Its meaning is so specific that even English-speaking econ- omists make no attempt to translate it and have in fact adopted it as if it were an English word. Thus, a recent World Bank study on Latin America by an American economist includes the following sentence: “A particu- larly important issue is . . . whether the reforms are likely to be durable or whether, on the contrary, they are likely to be reversed, plunging Latin America back into dirigisme, populism, and inequality.” Here, the French word dirigisme is apparently being used, by an English-speaking specialist, because there is no English word that conveys all of the same nuances. We might therefore be tempted to conclude that the word dirigisme is “untranslatable”. But a translation or interpretation does not have to use the same parts of speech as the original. If we ask ourselves what English words are usually used in the context of discussions about government regulation of business, we find at least one possible equivalent noun phrase: “command economy”, as well as two adjectives, “prescriptive” or “directive”, which are fairly close in meaning. So a 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Untranslatability 59 59 Suorve – snow that clings to objects, clothing and trees, creating diffi- cult conditions and impeding movement Galav – deep, soft snow to wade through Hablek – snow falling in very large flakes Cieggat – slush or snow mush that skis sink down in. (Göran Nordell, Stockholm News (excerpt)) (a) Like the Same of Finland, the Inupiats of Alaska have a highly developed “winter vocabulary”: more than 30 words for snow and more than 70 words for ice. Could you find equivalents for some of these words by talking to skiers or meteorologists who are accustomed to describing snow conditions? For example, do any of the following English words correspond nearly enough to any of the Same words for “snow”?: sleet / slush / hardpack / powder / dusting / blizzard / avalanche / flurry. (b) Are there any cultural characteristics of your country or natural features of your land or climate that are so unique as to be “untrans- latable” into other languages? Could they be translated by analogy? By paraphrase? By description? (c) Are you likely to find a single-word equivalent of the English word “blizzard” in the standard vocabulary of a Spanish-speaking tropical country? Are you likely to find a single-word equivalent of the word “tsunami” in the standard vocabulary of a land-locked country? If not, you immediately know that you will have to treat those “untranslatable” words by way of an explanatory or descrip- tive paraphrase. What would be the shortest possible paraphrase of “blizzard” and “tsunami” in each of the languages you know? 4 Read the article on bullfighting in Chapter 15 (pp. 267–270), and notice how the untranslatable Spanish bullfighting terms in bold type (tremendista, desplante, alternativa, tentaderos) have been introduced to the English reader with the addition of explanatory phrases. Notice also that some Spanish bullfighting terms (torero, matador), precisely because they are too culture-specific to be translatable, have become acceptable English words that need no longer be translated or explained. Although some rough English equivalents for such terms might be found or coined (e.g. “tremendista” = “daredevil” / “desplante” = “death- defying feat”), it seemed more respectful of Spanish cultural conventions to retain the Spanish term with an explanatory English paraphrase. Do you agree? 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 62 Interpretation 62 5 The following excerpt from a Le Monde article on economics contains three difficult terms. The French word “libéralisme” as it is used here refers to the economic theory of free markets, deregulation, and privati- zation that was prevalent in the 1980s and 1990s. The English word “liberalism” conveys that same meaning to both British and American economists; but to most ordinary Americans it merely means the oppo- site of “conservatism” and relates more to social issues (e.g. civil rights, reproductive rights, law enforcement) than to economic issues. The French word “dirigisme”, used here as a qualifier, apparently refers to a form of free-market economics which admits some degree of government intervention in the economy. The French word “solidarité” is used here not in the usual sense of fellowship with one’s fellow man, but in the institutional sense of social security and welfare programs. Paradoxes et records Libéral-dirigisme Le libéralisme tempéré de M. Balladur l’a ainsi amené à trop ronger l’image d’économie mixte que M. Mitterrand avait voulu donner à la France, en amorçant la privatisation de vingt et une entreprises publiques, et en commençant à faire valser en douceur quelques présidents de sociétés nationales, tout en rétablis- sant l’Etat dans son rôle, défini . . . comme “le garant de l’ordre social de la solidarité”. (Michel Noblecourt, “Paradoxes et records”, Le Monde, Bilan Economique et Social 1993 (excerpt)) (a) How would you translate or interpret this passage to an audience of English-speaking economists? (b) How would you translate or interpret this passage to an audience of American non-economists? (c) How would you translate or interpret this passage for English- speaking people from various parts of the world? (d) Would “libéral-dirigisme”, as used above, be equivalent to “liberalismo social”, the term used in Mexico to describe a free- market system with a social safety-net? Would “liberalismo social” be an appropriate translation into Spanish of “libéral-dirigisme”? (e) Does the French word libéralisme, as used above, differ from the English word liberalism and the Spanish word liberal as used in the two excerpts below? What does each word refer to? The eclipse of liberalism may have other causes in other places, but in New York City it is directly correlated with rising crime 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Untranslatability 63 63 rates and the perception, encouraged by the city’s tabloid media, that order is about to give way to anarchy. (Joe Conason, “Police Mayor in Fire City”, The Nation, 18 December 1995, p. 779) Para los clásicos no existía dilema: el orden liberal en la economía y en la política era uno y el mismo. El dilema se presenta para los liberales mexicanos precisamente porque esa identidad no existe. (Luis Rubio, “El Dilema Liberal”, Vuelta, October 1992, p. 70) (f) When a prominent European Union official recently argued against “le libéralisme sauvage” to a non-specialist American audi- ence, using the English word “liberalism”, she was saying the opposite of what she meant to say. Which of the following possible alternatives would be closest in meaning to “le libéralisme sauvage”? • free-market economics • hard-line free-market economics • extremist supply-side economics • deregulated free-market economics • robber-baron capitalism • free-market forces • cut-throat capitalism • laissez-faire capitalism Notice that all of the above alternatives imply a value judgment, positive or negative. That being the case, the interpreter should choose the alternative which conveys the same value judgment intended by the speaker. Which would you choose in the above case? Which would you choose in the following case, in which the French Prime Minister objects to competition between two small-business credit institutions as counterproductive? Pour corriger le manque de fonds propres des PME, le premier ministre a décidé l’augmentation des possibilités d’intervention de la société à capital risque Sofaris, ainsi que son rapprochement avec le CEPME (Crédit d’équipement aux PME), qui “cessera de s’épuiser dans une concurrence stérile qui a été voulue au nom d’un libéralisme trop doctrinaire”. (Le Monde, 29 November 1995) 6 In a committee debating development issues, an English-speaking representative proposed an amendment which called for using the word “resourcefulness” in reference to countries’ efforts to make the best use 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 64 Interpretation 64 Chapter 7 Figures of Speech Words are often used to form units of meaning in ways that convey more than what the rules of grammar dictate. Such combinations or clusters of words are used deliberately because they are “more than the sum of their parts” and thus serve as a kind of shorthand, which makes them espe- cially useful to interpreters. Translators and interpreters must be alert to figurative language and remember that a figure of speech in one language can often by rendered by a different figure of speech in another language, e.g. a metaphor by a proverb, or by non-figurative language. The most common pitfall to be avoided is not recognizing figurative or idiomatic language and translating it literally. For example, an English interpreter unfamiliar with the French idiom “jouer les empêcheurs de danser en rond” (to be a spoilsport) translated it as “going around in circles”. Failure to recognize the meaning of a figure of speech, or failure to accept and convey the meaning thereby intended by the speaker, can result in embarrassment for an interpreter. For example, in the following situation, a Russian interpreter apparently failed, or refused, to under- stand and render the meaning of the common English proverb “Don’t throw out the baby with the bath water”: Rudenko was accompanied by his deputy, Colonel Yuri Pokrovsky, . . . and a young lady interpreter, who introduced herself as Miss Dmitrieva. . . . Miss Dmitrieva’s interpreting was beginning to improve somewhat, but her lapses were often comical and there was a good deal of mirth, which she took with great good humor. However, she was the soul of propriety, and when someone at the table used the expression “to throw the baby out with the bath water”, she blushed to the roots of her hair and declared severely, “I weel not translate that; it eez not nice.” Hazard explained the figure of speech in Russian to Colonel Pokrovsky’s satisfaction, but the lady still 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 67 seemed troubled by this vision of a naked baby tumbling out of a tub. (Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials, Little, Brown & Co., New York, 1992, pp. 100–102) Exercises 1 If Miss Dmitrieva did recognize the proverb (which also exists in Russian), was she entitled to censor the speakers for whom she was working because she found the expression distasteful? If the English speaker had conveyed his meaning by means of the expression “Do not cut off your nose to spite your face”, would Miss Dmitrieva still have refused to interpret him because it was “not nice”? Is a too-fastidious interpreter behaving rather like a dictionary that omits “rude” words? If Miss Dmitrieva could not overcome her aversion to what she thought was impolite language, could she not have simply rendered the meaning of the proverb literally, i.e. “don’t go so far that your action is self-defeating”, or “don’t overdo it”? If she could not bring herself to utter the words “throw out the baby” even when the objectionable expression was purely figurative, how do you suppose she would have coped, as an interpreter, with a speech in which the image was not figurative at all, as in the following remarks by Hillary Rodham Clinton? The voices of this conference and of the women at Hairou must be heard loud and clear. It is a violation of human rights when babies are denied food, or drowned, or suffocated, or their spines broken, simply because they are born girls. It is a violation of human rights when women and girls are sold into the slavery or prostitution. It is a violation of human rights when women are doused with gasoline, set on fire and burned to death because their marriage dowries are deemed too small. (Hillary Rodham Clinton, Address to the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, China, 5 September 1995) 2 Read the following classification of the main figures of speech often used by writers and speakers, and make a list of some examples of each figure of speech in each language you know: • idiom: an expression in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself either grammatically (as “no it wasn’t me”) or in having a meaning that cannot be deduced from the combined meanings of its elements, for example: “Monday week” for “the Monday a week from next Monday”. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 68 Interpretation 68 • simile: a figure of speech comparing two things, often introduced by “as” or “like”, for example: “Bureaucracies, like plants, need pruning from time to time, lest they become all branches and no blossoms” (statement by US ambassador). • parody: a mocking or humorous imitation of another person’s speech or manner of speaking. • paronomasia: a pun, a play on words, usually formed by juxtaposi- tion of two words with similar sound or spelling but different meaning. (See Chapter 15, pp. 263–266.) • parrhesia: deliberate use of coarse or offensive language to “shock”. (See Chapter 15, pp. 264–265.) • euphemism: deliberate use of a weaker expression to avoid giving offense, or to place an idea in a more positive light, for example: “daytime drama” instead of “soap opera”. • hyperbole: extravagant exaggeration used as a figure of speech. • epigram: a terse, sage, or witty, often paradoxical saying, for example: “Democracy is the worst form of government, except all other forms that have been tried from time to time” (Winston Churchill). / “The United States and England are the only two nations separated by a common language” (George Bernard Shaw). • bromide: an epigram that has become trite or stale from over-use. • proverb: a brief popular epigram or maxim; an adage (in Spanish: un refrán), for example: “Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched”. Many common proverbs exist in several languages in similar versions. Some use the same image to convey a given idea, for example: “Absent le chat, les souris dansent.” = “When the cat’s away, the mice will play.” Others may convey a given idea through different images, for example: “Don’t put the cart before the horse.” = “No hay que comenzar la casa por el tejado.” / “We’re not yet out of the woods.” = “Nous ne sommes pas sortis de l’auberge.” / “tourner autour du pot” = “to beat around the bush”. • aphorism: a concise statement of a principle; an adage, for example: “A buen entendedor, pocas palabras.” = “A word to the wise.” 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Figures of Speech 69 69 • antonomasia: figure of speech in which a name is replaced by another, or by a paraphrase, for example: un Mécène (a patron of the arts) / un Aristarque (a critic). • synecdoche: a figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole (as in “50 sail” for 50 ships), or the whole for a part (as in “the smiling year” for spring), the species for the genus (as in “a cutthroat” for an assassin), the genus for the species (as in “a crea- ture” for a man), or the name of the material for the thing made of it (as in “asphalt” for road). • metonymy: use of the name of one thing for that of another of which it is an attribute or with which it is associated, for example: “lands of the crown” to mean royal lands. • apostrophe: an incidental remark addressed to an imaginary person or to a personified inanimate object, for example: “Oh, cruel fate!” / “Lead kindly, light!” • oxymoron: a contradiction in terms, for example: “negative growth” / “Make haste slowly.” 3 A Russian speaker quoted what he said was “an old Russian saying” which, translated literally, went: “Don’t vaccinate telephone poles against typhoid.” How old could this proverb be? If no equivalent English proverb comes to mind, could you translate it as “Don’t go overboard with needless precautions”? 4 (a) A Mexican speaker referred to a public figure in his country as “un verdadero Juárez”. Since Juárez was a contemporary and admirer of Lincoln and, like Lincoln, a leader of his country in time of crisis, could this allusion be appropriately rendered into English as “a veri- table Lincoln” to an audience that would not recognize Juárez? (b) In the following quotation, are the names transposable in trans- lation or are both names better left alone? Notre véritable Homère, qui le croirait, c’est La Fontaine! (Sainte- Beuve) 5 A French speaker at an international meeting referred to a seem- ingly far-fetched proposal as “gagaesque”. This is a pun combining “Dadaesque” (alluding to an absurdist art movement) and “gaga” (slang for “crazy”, i.e. “nuts”). Since such puns are usually untranslatable, 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 72 Interpretation 72 would it be an adequate English translation to refer to the proposal as “surrealistic”? In a more colloquial vein, would “off the wall” be a good equivalent? 6 (a) A Cuban speaker used the expression “echar anzuelos a alguien” in the sense of “to catch someone unawares”. If no equivalent English metaphor with “hooks” comes to mind, would the expression “to trip someone up” be an adequate English translation? (b) A Costa Rican speaker used the following image: “Por el peso y el valor intrínseco de su temática y por el alcance de su contenido sustantivo y programático, la Declaración y el Programa de Acción se han ido perfilando y consolidando como una especie de paraguas envolviente y articulador de un proceso de fundamentales definiciones . . .” Could this idea be rendered by the metaphor of an “umbrella”, an “envelope”, or a “package”? Even if it could, does the expression of this idea require the use of so elaborate a metaphor, or of any metaphor at all? Would the use of a metaphor in translation clarify or complicate this idea? (c) An Argentine speaker used the expression “una sesión a la francesa” and then went on to explain that, in his country, this expres- sion refers to an informal meeting where people get together to exchange ideas freely before the formal meeting where they will be expected to state a formal position. Would “brainstorming session” be a suitable English equivalent? Could this expression, or the English expression “to take French leave”, be translated literally into French? What do they have in common with the French expression “filer à l’anglaise”? The same Argentine speaker, referring to occasions when a dramatic proposal or piece of news is suddenly made known, used the expression “un bombazo”. Would the following be suitable equiv- alents? English: “letting loose a bombshell”; French: “jeter un pavé”. (d) In a drafting group, several divergent opinions have been expressed regarding the proper meaning of a key word in a docu- ment. Finding some of these interpretations far-fetched, a Cuban speaker says, “No hay que buscarle la quinta pata a la mesa.” What does he mean? How would you say it in French, English, or other working languages? 7 When an English speaker says “we are yoked to our partners in this venture . . .” is this a simile or a metaphor? 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Figures of Speech 73 73 Of the two following figures of speech used by Elsa Triolet, which is the simile and which is the metaphor? Which is more apt or plausible? Which would sound more plausible in translation? L’ébullition en lui, le Vésuve de sa tête, finirait bien par se calmer, cesserait de cracher le feu, la lave. Elle était vive et à son affaire, les travaux domestiques devaient lui être naturels comme à une poule de picorer et de pondre. D’ailleurs, elle ressemblait un peu à une poule, lourde sur ses jambes grêles, le nez pointu et l’oeil rond. (Elsa Triolet, Luna Park, Gallimard, 1959, pp. 11–16) A metaphor, by omitting the comparative word “like”, implies a stronger comparison than a simile. But if the image used for the compar- ison is not itself apt, accurate, or elegant, the metaphor can sound awkward, absurd, or extravagant in English. It will sound even more absurd if the comparison is extended, as is the case with both compar- isons above. When this occurs in a speech, the English interpreter should consider inserting the word “like” and turning the metaphor into a simile. 8 (a) On 5 March 1995 a newspaper reported that President Carlos Salinas of Mexico had said that he was being criticized “without misery”. What President Salinas probably said was that he was being criticized sin misericordia, i.e. “without mercy”. Was the reporter misled by an apparent cognate? Would “harshly”, “unfairly”, “merci- lessly”, or “ruthlessly” be suitable English equivalents for this expression? What would a good equivalent be in French or in your other working languages? (b) A prominent French official speaking English warned his audi- ence that, if they pursued a certain unwise course of action, they would be “shooting at their feet”. What was the expression he intended to use? What would a good equivalent be in Spanish or in your other working languages? (c) The same speaker mentioned that he had encountered a certain economic problem “in 36 countries”, but added that he used the number 36 only because of a “convention of language in his country”. What was the expression he had in mind, and what would be the proper way of putting it in English? Would “in any number of coun- tries” be suitable? What would a good equivalent be in Spanish or in your other working languages? 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 74 Interpretation 74 (d) Translate the following simile into Spanish, French, or other working languages using first the original simile and then an equiv- alent simile (or other figure of speech) in each language: “An idea in politics is like a Christmas fruitcake,” James Carville, the Democrat strategist said, recycling a simile he himself has used in the past. “There’s only one, and everyone just passes it around.” (The New York Times, 14 January 1996, Section 4, p. 5) 15 When a speaker warns you in advance that he or she is about to utter a proverb by using words like, “We have a saying . . .” or “As we say in my country . . .”, you may find it useful to preface your interpretation of the proverb with the words “We have a saying to the effect that . . .”. This will enable you to do either of two things gracefully: (a) give a suitable equivalent if you can think of one fast enough, or (b) give an approxi- mate translation of the original proverb, for example: “Comme l’on dit chez moi, ‘Vingt fois sur le métier remettez votre ouvrage’.” = (a) “There is a saying in my country to the effect that ‘Practice makes perfect’”, or (b) “There is a saying in my country to the effect that you must go back to your work time and again until you get it right.” Obviously, the former is the better translation, but the latter is adequate, and either will work with the prefatory words “to the effect that”. Try this technique with some of the proverbs listed in (17)–(19) below. 16 In many cases the point a speaker is trying to convey by a proverb or maxim is a simple and obvious one that is clear from the context. Speakers will sometimes use a complex or obscure proverb or figure of speech merely for effect, although the substantive point they are making is straightforward and can be stated simply in any number of ways. When this happens, there is nothing wrong with stating the “moral of the story” in simple terms if you cannot think of an equivalent proverb or other figure of speech in the few seconds available to you when inter- preting. Accuracy is more important than affectation. If you cannot think of “Time and tide wait for no man” or “There’s no time like the present” or “Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today”, just say “Let’s not delay.” Similarly, while the expression “to shoot from the hip” may not have an equally colorful equivalent in current French, it simply means “réagir instinctivement” and can be so translated. While it may be more polished to render a proverb by a proverb, it is unprofessional to become tongue-tied over a simple idea. For figures of speech, as for all other forms of speech, the interpreter’s job is to get the gist of the meaning across to the audience within the time limits dictated by the speaker’s speed. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Figures of Speech 77 77 For example, in the following hypothetical statements, guess the meaning of the (non-existent) “proverb” and translate the idea: My country has invested heavily in this soil conservation scheme every year for many years. Yet, no matter how much we invest, it still has not worked, and erosion continues. We feel like the proverbial turtle who built his nest from sand! It is time to declare the project a failure. We have been waiting for years for the major polluter countries to join the Environmental Convention, postponing action in the vain hope that their membership would make our task easier. But none has yet joined! As the proverb in my country says, “The shepherd lost his flock while waiting for the stray sheep.” We must take action without further delay! 17 Proverbs can sometimes be translated literally, but often their meaning is not readily apparent from a literal translation, e.g. the Chinese proverb “A needle is not sharp at both ends.” Moreover, the same image or word may be used in different languages to convey very different ideas, and this has considerable poten- tial for confusion. For example, the common English idiom using the word “elbow”, “to bend the elbow”, refers to misbehavior (getting drunk), but the Chinese proverb “The elbow bends inward” is a moral precept meaning “It is natural to think first of one’s own family” (Lin Yutang, Translations from the Chinese, World Publishing Co., Cleveland, 1960, p. 481). Thus, a literal translation of such a proverb could be both incomprehensible and incongruous. If a literal translation sounds incongruous or meaningless in the target language, one should try to grasp the underlying idea from the context in order to translate or interpret a proverb. (a) Focusing on the underlying idea, translate the following English proverbs into Spanish, French, or your other working languages: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. / Absence makes the heart grow fonder. / Out of sight, out of mind. / Actions speak louder than words. / You can’t teach an old dog new tricks. / A leopard never changes its spots. / When angry, count ten. / The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. / Hitch your wagon to a star. / A rising tide lifts all boats. / Birds of a feather flock together. / Beauty is only skin-deep. / Once bitten, twice shy. / Never cross a bridge until you come to it. / Business is business. / He who pays the piper calls the tune. 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 78 Interpretation 78 / Half a loaf is better than none. / Be grateful for small blessings. / Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. / Never hit a man below the belt. / Beggars can’t be choosers. / A fool and his money are soon parted. / Charity begins at home. / Never change horses in mid-stream. / If you can’t lick ‘em, join ‘em. / If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it. / It’s no use crying over spilt milk. / What’s good for the goose is good for the gander. / Don’t kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. / One who acts as his own lawyer has a fool for a client. / People in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones. / Discretion is the better part of valor. / All’s fair in love and war. / All things come to he who waits. / A penny saved is a penny earned. / A bad penny always turns up sooner or later. / Better the devil you know than the devil you don’t know. / To err is human, to forgive is divine. / One man’s meat is another man’s poison. / Two wrongs don’t make a right. / Where there’s smoke, there’s fire. / Still waters run deep. / When the cat’s away, the mice will play. / A rolling stone gathers no moss. / Leave well enough alone. / Let sleeping dogs lie. / Two heads are better than one. / Where there’s a will there’s a way. / A little know- ledge is a dangerous thing. / Any port in a storm. / A friend in need is a friend indeed. / Power corrupts. / The best things in life are free. / Nothing succeeds like success. / It is better to give than to receive. / Talk is cheap. / Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth. / Opportunity knocks but once. / Every cloud has a silver lining. / The night is always darkest before the dawn. / When it rains, it pours. / Physician, heal thyself. / You can’t teach your grandmother to suck eggs. / Tit for tat. / One good turn deserves another. / No man is an island. / The road to hell is paved with good intentions. / A rose by any other name would smell as sweet. / What’s in a name? / The race is to the swift. / Rome wasn’t built in a day. / The devil take the hindmost. / The devil is in the details. / What you don’t know won’t hurt you. / Misery loves company. / As you sow, so shall you reap. / Never put off until tomorrow what you can do today. / It’s an ill wind that blows no good. / There’s many a slip twixt the cup and the lip. / Ignorance is bliss. / Lightning never strikes twice in the same place. / Sticks and stones can break your bones but words can never hurt you. / If the shoe fits, wear it. / Don’t mix apples and pears. / Waste not, want not. / Less is more. / A watched pot never boils. / Success has many fathers; failure is an orphan. / Build a better mousetrap, and the world will beat a path to your 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Figures of Speech 79 79 18 Which Spanish proverb above corresponds to “Money talks”? Which English proverb above corresponds to “Dime con quien vas, y te diré quien eres”? Which French proverb above corresponds to “Don’t judge a book by its cover”? Which English proverb above is closest in meaning to “Le mieux est l’ennemi du bien”? Match as many proverbs as possible in the above lists with an approximate equivalent in another language. 19 Would the German proverb “An old bear is slow in learning to dance” convey approximately the same meaning as “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks”? Could the German proverb “A lovelorn cook oversalts the porridge” be paraphrased to translate “Too many cooks spoil the broth”, or vice-versa? Is the basic idea of the German proverb “Eile mit Weile” (“The more hurry, the less speed”) the same as the English proverb “Haste makes waste”? Could the German proverb “The sparrow in my hand is better than the dove on the roof” be translated by the English proverb “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush”? Is it equivalent to the Italian proverb “Better have an egg today than a hen tomorrow”? Can you guess the meaning of the German proverb “To jump over your shadow”? Does the German proverb “Man soll nicht den Tag vor dem Abend loben” (“Don’t praise the day before evening”) have the same meaning as the English proverb “Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched” and the French proverb “Il ne faut pas vendre la peau de l’ours avant de l’avoir tué”? Could the Italian proverb “He who commences many things finishes but few” be paraphrased to translate the English proverb “A jack-of-all- trades is master of none” or the French proverb “Qui trop embrasse mal étreint”? Could the central idea in these proverbs also be rendered in English by the expressions “Don’t overextend yourself” or “Don’t spread yourself out too thin”? Does the Latin maxim “Non omnia possumus omnies” convey the same idea? Could one also take the opposite cliché of “a man for all seasons” and express the same idea by negating it? Would the Chinese proverb “No cure, no pay” convey approximately the same meaning as the Spanish proverb “Músico pagado, mala can- ción”? Could the Chinese proverb “One foot cannot stand on two boats” be used to translate “No man can serve two masters”? Would the Arabic proverb “How degrading is folly in old age!” convey approximately the same meaning as “There’s no fool like an old fool”? Could the Arabic proverb “Revenge produces sorrow; pardon gladness” be used to translate “To err is human, to forgive divine”? Would the Russian proverb “Necessity teaches the bear to dance” convey approximately the same meaning as “Necessity is the mother of 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 82 Interpretation 82 invention”? Would the Russian proverb “There are no barriers to a rich man” convey the same meaning as the Spanish proverb “Poderoso caballero es Don Dinero”? Does the Russian proverb “Tomorrow is time enough for revenge” convey the same meaning as the French proverb “La revanche est un plat qui se mange à froid”? Can the Russian proverb “Only the grave can straighten out a hunchback” be translated by “A leopard can’t change his spots”? Try to work out the meaning of the following West Indian proverbs, and to think of equivalents in Spanish, French, or your other working languages: Jamaica: “The cow never knows the use of its tail until it loses it.” / “Do not put your hand into fire for anyone.” / “Today does not kill tomorrow.” / “Cats and dogs do not have the same luck.” / “Too many rats never dug a good hole.” / “A good friend is better than money in the pocket.” / “What you don’t know is older than you.” / “Every day bucket go to well, one day it come home empty.” / “One-one coco, full basket.” / “The new broom sweeps clean, but the old one knows the corners.” / “You’re in the right church, but in the wrong pew.” / “Lie down with dog, get up with fleas.” / “If it no itch, no scratch.” / “If you see old woman run, don’t ask why, run too.” Barbados: “An empty bag can’t stand up.” / “Tree does wet you twice.” Does the Malay proverb “Just because the river is quiet, don’t think the crocodiles have left” express the same idea (unseen danger) as “Something is rotten in the state of Denmark”? Does it differ from “to smell a rat”, from “There’s something fishy”, and from “Il y a anguille sous roche”? Does the Swahili proverb “Don’t curse the crocodile before you have crossed the river” express the same idea as “Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched” (i.e. don’t take success for granted prematurely) or is it closer in meaning to “Don’t tempt fate”? Is it likely that the expression “to shed crocodile tears” could be translated literally into most other languages and be understood? Does it depend on the listener’s actual familiarity with the habits of crocodiles? In the following sentence, describing the route which the author followed home from school, can one translate literally the expression “lagarto lagarto”? “Tomaba por (las calles) Sierra, Jackson, Bulevar España . . . hasta la peni- tenciaria, que era (lagarto lagarto) mi destino final”? (Mario Benedetti, La Borra del café, Arca, Montevideo, 1992, p. 81) 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Figures of Speech 83 83 Try to think of an equivalent in Spanish, French, or other working languages for the following Egyptian proverbs: “Feed the mouth, and the eye will be shy” (proverb said when you need a favor or service from someone – you “feed” him/her to get what is needed; also used to mean “paying somebody to keep quiet”). / “Turn the jar on its mouth; The girl will take after her mother.” (The first line about the jar is there only for the sake of the rhyme. This proverb is used to refer to wanton girls.) Could the Egyptian proverb “We give him a glimmer of hope, and he takes full advantage” be translated by the English proverb “Give them an inch and they’ll take a mile”? Could the Egyptian proverb “He who resembles his father gives up none of his rights” be translated by a paraphrase of the English proverb “Like father, like son”? Could the Latin proverb “Carpe diem” (“Seize the day”) be translated into English by the proverbs “Gather rosebuds while ye may” or “Strike while the iron is hot” or “Make hay while the sun shines”? How do these differ from the saying “Live for today, for you know not what tomorrow may bring”? In a radio interview broadcast on 1 January 1996, the Dalai Lama’s interpreter explained that one of the more difficult precepts of Tibetan Buddhism to put into English was the concept of karma, i.e. the idea that one must eventually atone for one’s past actions. The American inter- viewer immediately suggested the American proverb “What goes around comes around.” Another more colloquial version of the same idea is “The chickens will come home to roost.” Would these two proverbs, in the proper context, be adequate to express the concept of karma? When would they not be appropriate, due to differences in level of language? Can you translate this concept into other languages you know by means of a proverb or other figure of speech? Could the humorous Latin-American colloquial expression “Para qué tanto brinco estando tan parejo el suelo?” be translated by the humorous American colloquial expressions “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” or “a tempest in a teapot” or “Why all the fuss”? Can you think of (or invent) an equivalent in French or other languages? Could the French colloquial proverb “Quand on veut noyer son chien, on l’accuse de rage” be translated by the English colloquial proverb “Give a dog a bad name and hang it”? Can you think of an equivalent in Spanish or in other languages? Can the French stereotype “médecin malgré lui” be used to encap- sulate the same idea as the English proverb “Necessity is the mother of invention”? 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 84 Interpretation 84 the midnight oil / a Lothario / Moloch / Leviathan / dog days / naysayer / doomsayer / soothsayer / play hooky / in one fell swoop / last straw / the straw that broke the camel’s back / glitch / bug / to make hay while the sun shines / long in the tooth / spoilsport / gadfly / turn the knife in the wound / to give lip service to / fire and sword / not my cup of tea / two-edged sword / as plain as a pikestaff / to pull the wool over someone’s eyes / sour grapes / to have the bit between one’s teeth / sword of Damocles / jewel in the crown / to throw in the towel / king’s ransom / hard knocks / surfing the net / hacker / to fly by the seat of the pants / a horse of a different color / another kettle of fish / get into the act / the game is not worth the candle / to give a wide berth to / a Lucrecia Borgia / a Matahari / to take the wind out of someone’s sails / to get down to business / to get down to brass tacks / shoulder to the wheel / to play along with / yeoman’s labor / sea-change / cheek by jowl with / hand in glove with / to turn the other cheek / What cheek! / one- size-fits-all / to blow your own horn / whistling past the graveyard / at one stroke / in one fell swoop / Pandora’s box / can of worms / hornet’s nest / nest of vipers / slippery slope / hand on heart / warts and all / the good, the bad, and the ugly / a Quisling / a Malthusian / survival of the fittest / pushing up daisies / Punch and Judy show / a King Canute / behind the curve / to be in the loop / to be in the doghouse / straws in the wind / top man on the totem pole / cold comfort / to pull a rabbit out of a hat / Lead kindly, light! / to go one better / one-upmanship / brinkmanship / to leave someone open-mouthed / the lion and the lamb / to beat swords into plowshares / to cross the Rubicon / smoking gun / the dog that did not bark / unbeknownst to / to turn the knife in the wound / Lebensraum / elbowroom / leeway / the bottom line / from scratch / back to square one / fighting words / to be under someone’s thumb / horse-trading / log-rolling / back-scratching / to come out in the wash / to face the music / carved in stone/ graven in stone / to own up to / to take a leaf from someone’s book / to take someone to the cleaners / to give someone a dressing down / pennies from heaven / a penny for your thoughts / ballpark figure / to give someone slack / vicious circle / the chicken or the egg / sacred cow / virtuous circle / humbug / skeletons in the closet / with the wolf at the door / wolf in sheep’s clothing / to cry wolf / women and children first / not to give a fig about / a Messalina / sounding-board / tinder- box / powder-keg / red flag / hand-wringing / to make a difference / a can-do attitude / to be gung-ho about / Daniel in the lions’ den 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Figures of Speech 87 87 / avatar / crystal ball / Icarus / forbidden fruit / jury-rigged / die- hard / dyed-in-the-wool / hard-core / once-and-for-all / the calm before the storm / in the eye of the storm / a level playing field / to leave no stone unturned / a crying shame / to bend over backwards / to run out of steam / under the gun / home free / deadbeat / garden-variety / shadow chancellor / payback / bailout / payoff / to pan out / just this once / to be in clover / domino effect / the domino theory / devil’s choice / Hobson’s choice / happy as a clam / in due course / squaring the circle / more than meets the eye / skeleton staff / bargaining chip / foot-dragging / in the bag / with a straight face / till you’re blue in the face / to go to bat for someone / to have a place in the sun / stalking horse / Trojan horse / war- horse / hobby-horse / to get on one’s high horse / scatter-shot / to play musical chairs / to throw the book at someone / bugbear / bogeyman / to bring someone to book / snail’s pace / with all delib- erate speed / to make haste slowly / my brother’s keeper / to badmouth someone / as bent as a left-handed corkscrew (UK) / to upset the applecart / topsy-turvy / to pave the way for / to take up the slack / a ghost at the feast / lashed to the wheel / to lay to rest / holy writ / gospel truth / chapter and verse / on sufferance / to step on someone’s toes / in step with the times / to step out of line / one step at a time / stepping-stone / the crunch / the bottom line / hectoring / to weigh in on the side of / to hit below the belt / star wars / wildcat / pie in the sky / user-friendly / networking / to take on board / to come on stream / to play hardball / to play dirty pool / plain vanilla / trickle down / guru / sherpa / czar / to be a thorn in the side of / paradigm shift / quantum leap / entropy / a Wunderkind / enfant terrible / Young Turk / to sound the clarion call / to make something stick / up and running / to come with the territory / without batting an eyelash / strong suit / trump card / feeding-frenzy / logjam / gridlock / to be hoist by one’s own petard / cock o’ the walk / to rule the roost / a drop in the bucket / too little and too late / ways and means / to see how the other half lives / to live on the wrong side of the tracks / the lost generation / the wasted decade / the power elite / the upper crust / the lonely crowd / a song and dance / to go on one’s merry way / quiet diplomacy / paradigm shift / silent majority / in one fell swoop / cloak and dagger / to fly off the handle / sackcloth and ashes / ugly duckling / poor relation / wallflower / backhanded compliment / truth to tell / holy grail / Armageddon / like a bolt from the blue / as if there were no tomorrow / sugar-coating / to sweeten the pot / a spoonful 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 88 Interpretation 88 of sugar / to lay something at someone’s doorstep / strange bed- fellows / to receive something on a silver platter / without breaking stride / to pull one’s weight / to throw one’s weight around / to make no bones about something / to march to the sound of a different drummer / to call the tune / a minority of one / unwanted conse- quence / heads will roll / the man of the hour / a man for all seasons / the widow’s mite / in a saw-tooth pattern / with a fine-tooth comb / Proteus / cornucopia / to be dragged into something kicking and screaming / to be put on the spot / to be in the limelight / to keep a low profile / to keep under wraps / to cry all the way to the bank / before the ink was dry / to remain a dead letter / old wives’ tales / to be jinxed / a new lease on life / fair-weather friend / the jury is still out / to cramp one’s style / straitjacket / smoke and mirrors / the big lie / iron determination / at the crossroads / to go the whole hog / you bet your boots / of the first water / to go with the flow / to be out of one’s depth / checks and balances / to pull out all the stops / to seek someone’s indulgence / an ace in the hole / a loose cannon / warp and woof / seamless web / to call the shots / to toe the line / to be left high and dry / red tape / to face the fire / to face the music / to cast about for / to know where one stands / to know what one is up against / hairsplitting / a textbook case / to pull the rug out from under / to sweep under the rug / right and left / at low ebb / to touch base / clearinghouse / to have other fish to fry / fire and brimstone / to put a spring in one’s step / neither use nor ornament / to add insult to injury / to contain the damage / to cut one’s losses / to ride out the storm / to throw good money after bad / to run the gauntlet / whistling in the wind / preaching to the converted / ball and chain / to hang out one’s shingle / to plead poverty / to bear the banner of / the movers and shakers / shell game / to withdraw into one’s shell / to get one’s dander up / the chicken and the egg / trial balloon; feeler; probe / to tell someone to go hang / a significant other / ripple effect / multiplier effect / to percolate / to resonate / to put the squeeze on someone / pincer movement / frontal assault / the salami tactic / grade creep (US) / to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth / to turn over a new page; to begin a new chapter; to see the error of one’s ways / to turn the tables on someone / tunnel vision; one-track mind; blinkered view; crabbed interpretation / beggar-thy-neighbor policy / stealing from Peter to give to Paul / slash-and-burn tactics / no-holds-barred contest / taproot / to tap into / the good egg in the basket / kangaroo court / drumhead tribunal / star chamber / beyond the pale / the 1111 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3111 4 5 6 7 8 9 20111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 30111 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 41111 Figures of Speech 89 89