Introduction to Linguistics, Schemi e mappe concettuali di Linguistica

Scarica Introduction to Linguistics e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Linguistica solo su Docsity! Running head: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Introduction to Linguistics Summary Name Institution Course Tutor Date INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS INTRODUCTION WHAT IS LANGUAGE ? What is language? »Were all familiar with at least one language, our own“ branches: ® universal grammar - specific grammar of all human languages * differences between languages (limited) ® parts of all grammars are interrelated grammar of a specific language ® finite setof rules to produce and understand an infinite set of possible sentences ® rules: sound system (phonology and phonetics), structure of words (morphology), combination of words into sentences (syntax), relation between sound and meaning (semantics), the words themselves (lexicon) first and second language acquisition ® language acquisition = rule-governed activity which cannot be reduced to simple behaviorism ® language faculty and innateness hypothesis ® poverty of the stimulus INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 5 - children acquire principles and structures that don’t appear on the surface - child: somebody’s at the doormother: there's nobody at the doorchild: there's yesbody at the door —> thinking about the word, analyzing deeper Noam Chomsky: children are capable of extracting rules of a language through hypothesis testing because they are equipped with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Nativist theories: no explicit teaching is required for a child to acquire a language by hypothesizing about the existence of Universal Grammar (UG) and LAD Universal Grammar = set of rules and principles of language genetically wired to human brains assumed to guide children in constructing the grammar of the language they are exposed to Competence vs. Performance Competence = knowledge of the grammar (intuitive, abstract) Performance = the use of a grammar for production and perception (actual behavior) task of linguists: unterstand the mapping between C and P, examine how people acquire C INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Communicative competence = not just grammatical competence (phonology, morphology,...) but also - how and when to use utterances - sociolinguistic competence, strategic competence etc. 1.1 WHAT IS LINGUISTICS ? = scientific study of language or of particular languages, all about human language scholars who systematically study language = linguists Evidence for linguistic units and categories Great Vowel Shift (1350 - 1700) = vowel raising process [o:] became [u:] boot [e:] became [i:] keep only affecting LONG vowels —> linguistic processes are constrained and principled (in this case: duration of sounds serves as category) English verbs have a different stress pattern than nouns REcord (noun) vs. reCORD (verb) PUSH up (noun) vs. push UP (verb) > part of speech (verbs and nouns) is an important concept in grammars INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Restrictions on -en suffixation: possible: soft - soften, deep-deepen, light-lighten, black-blacken impossible: low-lowen, fine-finen —> system? Internal and abstract organization Kim has gone to New York —> Has [Kim] gone to New York? [My Grandma] has baked a cake —> Has [my Grandma] baked a cake? [My Grandma who has baked a cake] is a great woman —> *[Has my Grandma who baked a cake] is a great woman? Deep structures vs. surface structure: The horse raced past the barn fell The reporters assigned to George drove furiously to the station ambiguous: George decided on the boat Questions and issues in linguistics: What is it that we know when we know a language? —> theoretical linguisticsissues: sub-components of grammar and their interactions INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 10 how do we acquire such a system? how is this system used in our production and comprehension of speech? Language as a social system: how do we know WHAT to say to WHOM? WHERE to say WHAT to WHOM? WHEN to say WHAT to WHOM? how do we acquire such a system what is a grammatically correct sentence and what an appropriate utterance? difference between what we SAY and what we ME English Linguistics and English Grammar, Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism Prescriptive Grammar Descriptive Grammar Expresses a certain dissatisfaction with language | attempts io describe actual language use use focus on correctness focus on real English" —»language use and changes In use Standard Standards Synchrony vs. Diachrony: synchrony = study of languages at a certain point in time diachrony = study of language change over time —> Saussure: calls for the primacy of synchrony Spoken vs. Written Language: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 11 Saussure calls for the primacy of the spoken word, most linguistic study in the 19th century concerned with written language Structuralism: - heart of Saussure’s ideas: focus of linguistics on the speech community - Saussurean type of linguistics = structural linguistics - language system (langue) = centre of study, - and not the concrete language use by the individual (parole) The Linguistic Sign: example tree“: - meaning: a plant with a brown base and green leaves on top —> concept (signifié / signified) - expression: (tri:) —> sound pattern (signifiant / signifier) Arbitrariness: no internal natural link between the sound shape and the meaning of the linguistic sign —> the form of a word doesn't dictate its meaning —> the meaning isn’t predictable from the form —> the same concept can be referred to by completely sound patterns in different languages same animal, but completely different sound patterns: [dog] [hund] [chien] —> relationship between sound pattern and the concept is arbitrary INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 12 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 15 Pronouns: personal pronoun and demonstrative pronoun —> were fully inflected Verbs in Old English: verbal system only two simple tenses: present and preterite (or past) system divided into strong and weak verbs, on the basis of the formation of the preterite Consonants: similar to the consonants of Modern English, consonant system hasn’t undergone major changes Vowels: particularly long vowels: considerable change from OE to Modern English e.g. m6na —> moon, stàn —> stone 2.2 ENGLISH AROUND THE WORLD The use of English: - most widely used language (350m)- native language (first language, acquired as a child)- non-native speaker (additional language) - used as intranational language, communication in countries with english as dominant native language - used as international language, communication with speakers of other countries INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 16 Varieties of English / World Englishes: British English Scottish, Irish Welsh English American, Canadian English South African English Why? Isolation, group identity, socio-cultural practices, ethnicity, regional varieties social and ethnic varieties British English vs. American English Lexical differences: ® dueto broadening, narrowing or shift meaning ® same word, different meaningcorn (UK, seed of plants) vs. corn (US ,,Mais“) ® bathroom (UK, place with bathtub and shower, no toilet ) vs. bathroom (US, + toilet) Americanisms: ® 401(k), 9-1-1baby carriage (UK: pram) ® checking account (UK: cheque account)truck (UK: lorry) Phonological differences: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 17 ® flapping of /t, /d —> /r in American English ® glottalization of /t/d —> /?/in varieties in Britain (what? —> wha?) ® yod-dropping (news, tune, assume etc. but not cute, few, etc) /v/ /9/ off, long, dog, cloth (“cloth-thought” merger) */v/ /a:/lot, cot, stop, rob, bother (“lot” unrounding) * The low-back merger in North American varieties all of the above words are realized with /a:/ * UK: /'kpt.an/ US: /'ka:.t an/ (differences in the way vowels are pronounced) Grammatical differences: 1. African American Vernacular English employs different auxiliaries than standard English to mark aspectual distinctions She done wash the clothes He (be) working He steady working (He works regularly) He finna go to work (fixing to / getting ready to) 2. A-prefixing in Appalachian English I know he was a-tellin’ the truth but I was a-comin’ home He just kep’a-beggin’ and a-cryin’ and a-wantin’ to go out > Presumably the a-prefixed verbs convey ,,immediacy or dramatic vividness“ INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 20 lungs larynx (or voice box, Kehlkopf): contains the vocal folds (folds of muscle, vocal cords, Stimmlippen) and the glottis (space between the vocal folds) vocal tract (above the larynx, including oral and nasal cavities) majority of sounds are produced by an airstream that is pushed up from the lungs and leaves the body through the mouth or the nose —> eggressive pulmonic airstream mechanism Nasal cavity: Oral cavity Larynx il tolas are Pharynx:__— 27) aryinx] Organs of Speech / Articulators INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 21 —> produce a variety of different sounds —> description and classification of sounds: depends on how and where the airstream is modified by the articulators —> distinction of mobile / active articulators and non-mobile / passive articulators (cannot be voluntarily controlled) - two natural classes of speech sounds: consonants and vowels - consonantal sounds: articulated with narrow or complete closure in the vocal tract - vowels: produced without any obstruction of the airstream INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 22 3.1.2 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS AND VOWELS English consonants are distinguished by manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing: criterion possibilities state of the glottis / volcing valceless or volced piace ci articulation bilabial, labiodental, (inter-]dental, alveolar, postalveolar, retrofiex, palatal, velar, Uvular, pharyngeal, glottal manner oi anticulation piosive (or stop), nasal, trili, tap or flap, tricative, altricate, lateral fricative, approxImant, lateral approx|mant States of the Glottis: > air for production of sounds passes from the lungs through the glottis (opening between the vocal folds) in the larynx 3 when glottis is narrow, air causes the vocal folds to vibrate —> resulting sounds: voiced > voiced sounds: make with comparatively weak force —> lenis (latin: soft) 3 when glottis is open, no vibration —> resulting sounds: voiceless > voiceless sounds: made with strong breath force —> fortis (latin: hard) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 25 manner of articulation production examples plosive or stop the speaker blocks the [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] alrstream by forming a [?] complete closure, builds up pressure and then releases the alr sexplosively* through the mouth fricative a continuous airstream [f] [v] [s] [2] IM] [9] [3] forces its way through a WU [3] very narrow opening between the articulators and causes audible friction affricate combination of a plosive and [t (] [d 3] a fricative, begin with a complete closure and continue by slightly releasing the articulators, air escapes slowly through a narrow passage nasal the velum is lowered so that | [m] [n] [n] the airstream partially or completely passes through the nose flap or tap produced by striking the IM tongue quickly against the roof of the mouth, interrupting the flow of air very briefly trill an articulator, such as the [r] [8] tongue tip or the uvula, vibrates in the airstream lateral fricative the air escapes around the sides of a partial closure of the organs of speech through a narrow passage approximant articulators approach but do Gl [w] LI not touch each other, leaving a wider opening than in the production of fricatives lateral approximant made with air that escapes mM ‘around the sides oî a partial closure (like lateral fricatives) but no friction is INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 26 Sonority: ® spontaneous voicing is possible ® the pressure of the air behind the constriction is the same as the pressure of the ambient air ® the pressure above the larynx allows the vocal cords to vibrate continuously ® air pasing through the larynx is quickly vented out through the oral or nasal cavities and pressure never arises Sonorant sounds: ® greater openness of the channel ® carry a greater amount of sound all vowels and nasal sounds are [+ sonorant] also / r, l, j, w/ Obstruents (non-sonorant) ® the constriction inhibits airflow ® supraglottal pressure rises enough to prohibit voicing unless special measures are taken to keep voicing going /p, t; k, b, d, g, s,z,S,3/etc. are all obstruents Summary Consonants: ® laryngeal activity: voiced vs. voiceless ® closure duration and release (Voice Onset Time): aspirated vs. unaspirated INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 27 ® Place of Articulation: consonants involve either a closure or significant obstruction of air in the mouth by the involvement of active and passive articulators ® Manner of Articulation:whether there is release, friction etc. VOWELS: ® articulated without any obstruction of the airstream, open vocal tract, no build up of pressure ® essentially always voiced ® more sonorous than consonants, fuller tone than consonants ® perceived as louder and longer lasting ® formsyllables (syllabic sounds) ® tongue never touches anywhere > other place parameters are used to describe vowels RP vowels: /Ji:/ beat” /1/ ,bit* /3:/ ,,bird£ INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 30 [i, u] are phonetically longer in duration than [I, ©] produced with greater tension of the tongue muscles the tongue is higher > i: and u: are TENSE, all others are LAX vowels Differentiation into monophthongs (simple / pure vowels) and diphthongs (gliding vowels, because they exhibit a change in quality as they glide from one articulation to another during the production of the vowel) Monophthongs: the quality of the vowel stays constant from the beginning to end Diphthongs: two-part vowels, have one starting point and a different end point 3.1.3 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION ® most languages no one-to-one correspondence between pronunciation and spelling ® wecan’trely on the traditional alphabetical spelling system when it comes to pronunciation in Present Day English —> separate transcription system needed ® each sound represented by same symbol, seperate symbol for each sound —> Phonetic Transcription provides such a system, correspondence between sounds and symbols —> phonetic symbols INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Phonetic Symbols: square brackets [ ] Letters: angled brackets < > whole set of phonetic symbols: phonetic alphabet best known system: IPA 31 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 32 IPA consonant chart CONSONANTS (PUL pb i t - tdici|ka|qge r x m m n n n n N B r R È [ fv|odjsz|fS3z]|sz|ci|xy[xs|hf|hf 4 n 7 Tall ] K 1 but: English does not make use of all consonants in the IPA —> most important consonants: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 35 - long vowels: usually followed by a length mark (two vertical dots) vowel quality remains more or less constant throughout the production of the vowel, articulators stay in the same position Diphthongs (or Gliding Vowels): - vowels that change their quality during their articulation - articulators move or glide from one vowel position to another - changing: height of the tongue, sometimes the part of the tongue, sometimes lip rounding —> Transcription of Diphthongs consists of a combination of two vowel symbols example: vowel sound in ,,boy“ is transcribed as [>I] INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 36 —> first the back of the tongue is raised to a mid-low position and lips rounded then: front of the tongue moves to a mid-high high position and the lips are unrounded two different types of diphthongs: - closing diphthongs, end in an [1]-like or [3]-like qualityrise to a rather close (or high) position towards the end of their articulation - centring diphthongs, end in an [a]-like qualityresults from the loss of [1] in the historical development of RP in words like ,,beer“ 3.2 PHONOLOGY - THE FUNCTION AND PATTERNING OF SOUND how do we characterize and classify sounds?which are used contrastively and which are the variant pronunciations of contrastive sounds? can we predict the different realization of a contrastive sound? INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 37 —> concerned with the speaker’s knowledge of the sound system of a language —> studies inventory (sounds used by a given language) and investigates the function and mental organisation of these sound Aspiration in English: period between the release of a consonant and the start of the vocal cord activity for the following vowel = Voice Onset Time (VOT)long lag —> felt as puff of air Aspiration Rule: Aspiration occurs on all voiceless stops occurring as the first sound in a (stressed) syllable For English: aspiration isn't employed to create a meaning difference 3.2.1 SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY split up utterances into the individual sounds they are made of —> identify the segments Can [s] and [f] distinguish meaning in English: [fel] shell“ [sel] ,,sell“ INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 40 Minimal Pair = pair of words with different meanings with exactly the same pronunciation except for one sound that differs stick“ vs. tip“ »team” vs. ,deam“ « »fun* vs. ,,sun Sum” vs. ,,sung” Test: do [1] and [r] belong to the same phoneme in English?—> look for minimal pairs [li:f] leaf [ri:f] reef [krap] crap [klap] clap [lek] lack [raek] rack —> minimal pairs that contain [1] and [r] —> [1] and [r] are contrastive in English —> thus, they are seperate phonemes —> they are NOT allophones of the same phoneme INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 41 —> not all sounds that are phonetically different distinguish meaning in English and appear in minimal pairs —> example: two ,,kinds of 1“ —> clear 1 and dark 1 clear 1—> [1] occurs before a vowel or [j] »lift* and ,, failure“ dark 1—> [1] - velarised variant of the alveolar lateral approximant - pronounced with an additional raising of the back of the tongue towards the velum —> velarised - occurs before a consonant or before silence, ,,silk“ and ,, feel“ —> [I] is found in the onset of a syllable [}] elsewhere —> [1] cannot occur where [1] occurs —> no minimal pairs concerning [1] and [}] —> they do ot distinguish meaning in English [1] and [}] are Allophones = different phonetic realizations of a phoneme INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 42 = different phones that dont distinguish meaning, are regarded as the ,,same sound“ and are phonetically similar [1] and [}] are allophones ofthe phoneme /1/ in English [p®] and [p] —> allophones of the same phoneme in English (Hindi: different phonemes) [s] and [f] —> allophones of the same phoneme, but different phonemes (e.g. shave, save) (Japanese: no minimal pairs with these sounds can be found) level unit phonemic (phonological) I1/ phoneme allophonic (phonetic) [1] [}] allophone - occurence / distribution of the different allophones is determined by the place within a word they can occur in and by the surrounding sounds—> phonetic context (or environment) - oneallophone cannot occur where the other one does —> distribution predictable INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 4MORPHOLOGY = how words are created, structured and changed —> talking about words and their ,,anatomy“ —> internal structure of words 4.1 MORPHOLOGY AND GRAMMAR 45 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 46 orthographic words = visual sign with space around it, preceded by a space and followed by a space or a punctuation mark words compounded of two or more elements > elements are separated either by hyphens or by spaces as well The students borrowed the books from the library. The students borrowed the morphology books from the library. > linguistic point of view: same amount of words > phonological words (phonological words even harder to recognise in spoken language (no pauses) ) words can be defined as grammatical units that function according to grammatical rules 3 Morphology = Grammar of Words mental dictionary / lexicon: contains information about the meaning of words, combined with information about their grammatical properties The students borrowed the books from the library 3 6 words (3x ,,the) 3 word types, particular words > 8 words è word tokens, occurences of words INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 47 words <> phonemes, syllables > words carry meaning creation of new words —> (native) speakers of English and other languages follow rules most of which they have never been taught rules = part of the speakers’ linguistic competence knowledge: > know whether a word is a noun, a verb, an adjective etc. > know how we can modify a word if we want to carry some particular grammatical information > know that the regular plural of English nouns is formed by adding -s > know that e-mail is related to the verb mail invented verbs: e-mail —> e-nail, e-sail > invented / never heard before, but: building grammatically correct forms is easy > knowledge about grammatical properties of words exists independently of their knowledge of single words - unlimited ability to create new words - not all word classes accept new members —> open vs. closed classes INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS base: speaker inflectional suffix: -s base: speaker —> derivational suffix: -er —> base: speak —> root of ,,speakers“: speak Prefix: attached to the beginning of a base Suffix: attached to the end of a base «* Prefixation: un-happy (changing meaning, new lexical category) « Infixation: abso-bloody-lutely (what is the meaning that is changing? stylistic change, sort of change not as clear, depends on stressing) adjective —> noun) « Circumfixation: ge-tràum-t (another way of forming words, no circumfixation in English, two morphemes surround) « Suffixation: happy-ness (new form, changing meaning and part of speech: 50 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 51 4.2 MORPHEMES AND ALLOMORPHS Phonemes realised as different allophones —> Morphemes realised as different allomorphs —> variants of morphemes Morphological vs. morphemic analysis s » s » s » s » s » worked: 2 morphs, 2 morphemes nicer: 2, morphs, 2 morphemes better: (good + comparing morpheme —> 2 morphemes, but only 1 morph) mice: 1 morph, 2 morphemes (mouse + plural, but: can only be divided into sounds not morphs) men: 1 morph, 2 morphemes (man + plural) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 52 «* men’s: 2 morph (men + s), 3 morphemes (man —> men —> men’s: 3 morphemes) Morphological analysis: embark > doesn’t have anything to do with barking, but: just one morpheme, although it seems to be more complex disembark > dis + embark (dis- —> opposite of embark) —> two morphemes: derivational prefix + free morpheme ,,embark“, no affix, can be isolated but dis- can not) Zero morphs and Portmanteau morphemes: cats. vs. sheep Zero morph: no overt realization of a morpheme, both plural but sheep: plural isn’t realized > morpheme is there but morph isn’t He sleeps -s: marks present, singular & 3rd person (all inflectional categories / morphemes, but: realized at once) Portmanteau = a single morph conveying multiple morphemes INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS —> makes incorrect prediction [f]-final words with no alternation belief - beliefs proof - proofs chief -chiefs safe — safes Variation in English: dwarf - dwarves / dwarfs scarf scarves / scarfs 4.3 MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES Inflectional Processes = add grammatical information to existing words Word Formation Processes = create new words 55 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 56 4.3.1 INFLECTION - only relatively few inflectional affixes in Modern English - all inflectional affixes of English are suffixes Inflection: notion valuable for syntax: syntatically relevant, expresses grammatical categories such as number, gender, case, tense, aspect, modality (possibilty, must vs. can), mood (question, statement, hypothetical case), gender (grammatical morphemes, German: der, die, das) Declension: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 57 inflection of nouns, adjectives and pronouns (e.g. case, number, gender)number: category important for syntaxt (a boy likes popcorn vs. boys like popcorn) Conjugation: inflection of verbs The productive inflections of English: * Plural number -s * Possessive case: -s * Present tense, 3rd sg: -s * Past tense: -ed * Pastparticiple: -ed * Present participle: -ing * Comparative degree: -er * Superlative degree: -est Derivational morphemes can be attached one after another: hope-less-ness dis-establish-ment-arian-ism 4.3.2 WORD FORMATION make words change their lexical class (or part of speech) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 60 [poly- the kind of involvement many” [ polysyllabic, polygraph co- stogether, jointly“ coexistence, cooperate contra- »against, opposite” contradiction, contraindication evaluations mis- »badly, wrongly“ miscalculate, mislead pseudo- ufalse, deceptive, pseudoartist, resemblance“ pseudoprophet place or direction ad- stoward“ adjoin, admeasure sub- »under, below“ subdivision, subtitle measurement hyper- y0Ver, to excess” hyperactive, hypersensitive hypo- ,Under, slightly“ hypotactic, hypotoxic negation and opposite dis- “ »apart, reversal, lacking disorder, dislike un- not‘ unbearable, uneven INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS time and duration 61 post- »after, behind“ postdate, postcolonial re- yanew, again, back“ regenerate, restore Zero affixation / Zero derivation (e.g. conversion) no change on the surface bottle - bottle (noun- verb, noun first, same form but different use / type of word) normally: affix to create verb out of a noun —> zero-affixation bridge - bridge (noun - verb, bridge —> thinking of the noun) sheep - sheep (singular - plural) rich - rich (noun - adjective) Noun Compounds: N + N: university library, broom closet V + N: call center, jump suit A+N: quick sand, blackbird P+N: afternoon, inlaws Verb Compounds: N + V: frog march, spoonfeed V + V: sleepwalk, dropkick A + V: deep fry, dry clean P+V: up end, overlook Adjective Compounds: N+A: skyblue, nationwide A+A: white hot, deep green P+A: overloud, underripe INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Compounding = adding of seperate words, combining of different words, some level of transparency, institutionalised idea: two different words to form new lexical meaning Headedness = compound has a head, often on the right side > right headedness brick red (type of red) / red brick (type of brick) > different centres of meaning > different order, different meaning dog house house dog » The right-hand head rule“ = compounds in English are typically RIGHT HEADED 62 examples for left-headed compounds (especially administration, in relation to law and registration) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 65 > goes along with stressing of the words Back-Formations > special types of clipping supposed or real affix is removed, result looks as if the longer word had been derived from the shorter word editor - edit (thought: ,editor' comes from ,edit’, but: verb out of noun) resurrection - resurrect (resurrect appears much later than resurrection) projection - project euthanasia - euthanize Backformation vs. Clipping Backformation removes actual or ,,supposed“ affixes from a word > burgle (OED: 1889) from burglar Backformation changes the part of speech (hence the meaning) but clipping doesn’t > resurrection (Latin) + resurrect (via anology to other verb+-ion pairs, e.g. > insert / insertion > project / projection Clipping: laboratory + lab (still the same part of speech / word type) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 66 Initialisms / AbbreviationsAlphabetisms & Acronyms Radio Detection and Ranging —> RADAR Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation —> LASER Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome —> AIDS Compact Disc Read Only Memory —> CD ROM Deoxyribonucleic Acid —> DNA Central News Network —> CNN Acronyms: UNESCO, radar, laser, AIDS (letters of each word, read the products as if it's a word, not A-I-D-S) Initialisms:UK, CNN, BBC, USA, DC, NY, Ph.D. (U-K, C-N-N, read each letter out) Mixed:CD- ROM, JPEG (Initialism + Acronym, Acronym + Initialism) Reduplication: doubleing, full or partial (usually CV) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Turkish: beyaz (white) —> bem-beyaz (very white) siyah (black) —> sim-siyah (very black) adjectives, duplicate first consonant and vowel and add ,,m° —> no partial reduplication in English Full Duplication in English: grand, grand mother very, very bad I’m going home-home (real home, student apart) re-re-read bling bling ex-ex-wife other types: flip flop, walkie talkie(particular vowel sound is changed) Phonological modifications / changes Segmental: belief - believe mouse - mice (plural, change of the vowel, no adding or taking away) bath - bathe (noun / verb distinction) 67 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS Compounds: word formation or phrase formation? hot dog (compound) vs. hot dog (phrase)compound —> lexical item, institutionalised —> we can use certain criteria to distinguish the two in English —> stress criterion: what is stress? = phonetic prominence = a relational concept WAter aGAIN FAther aBOUT left right Stress: notion, characterizes prominence more than one syllable —> one syllable is stressed stressed syllables: longer duration high(er) pitch values (FO, fundamental frequency) amplitude (intensity, loudness): great(er), loud(er) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 71 consonants surrounding a stressed vowel are more clearly pronounced unstressed syllables typically have reduced vowels (typically reduced to ,,schwa“) in English—> very reliable key difference between full and reduced vowel more compare: raider radar —> radar has secondary stress on the second syllableone location / syllable where is primary stress, additional: some words may have secondary stress syntax: syn —> initial stress, second vowel -tax: secondary stress (otherwise more like: syntx)latex: la —> primary stress, secondary stress on -tex (otherwise: more like latx) free stress? examples: (near) minimal pairs convert (v) vs. convert (n)She converts word files into pds files. They are converts. Vi CONVE! É n: convert INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS record (v) vs. record (n) we record quality music. the record company called (zero affixation) produce (v) vs. produce (n) Italy and France produce great wine. We sell organic produce. —> stress can appear in different locations, not fixed —> English: more free stress language, not fixed stress perfect minimal pair regarding stress: inside vs. insight Compound vs. Phrasal Stress White House vs. (literal, regular) white house White House: compound, institutionalised (compound: additional meaning that is institutionalised, lexicalised) white house: no lexical entry, just a regular white house like many others (phrase formation —> Phrasal Stress) INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 75 underlined: most prominent word capital letters: most prominent syllable contrasting ,,story“ with something else: every STOry has a beginning —> Emphatic and contrastive stress: - Michael teaches GERMAN. (He teaches German, not English) - Michael TEACHES German. (teach = contrastive with some other action: he doesn’t learn German he teaches German.) - MICHAEL teaches German. (Michael teaches German, not Jane) Stress criterion to distinguish a compound from a phrase: HOT dog vs. hot DOG But: There is a considerable amount of variation in compound stress assignment in English: Madison AVENUE vs. OXFORD streetPatato SOUP vs. PATATO chips apple PIE vs. APPLE cake double names: last name more prominent —> second word has prominence INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 76 Furthermore, copulative compounds deviate from the compoud stress rule in that both constituents may carry primary stress (level-stress) or the second element may carry primary stress. DEAF-MUTE deaf-MUTE —> either both have prominence, or the second one ,,wins£ Word integrity A word has an internal cohesion, it may be modified only externally *teach-s-er (plural has to be added to the end) *intel-un-igent Applies also to compounds: *the hotest dog *A low-fat [hot dog] *a very hot dog * The hottest [hot dog] —> a very hot hot dog *a hot low-fat dog —> a low-fat hot dog INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 77 —> treating ,,hot dog“ as an unit, modifications between the two parts of the unit impossible, can not change the inside Violations of word integrity in English: - son-in-law - —> where would you add the plural suffix: normal way: suffix at the end — > son in lawS - ? son-in-laws - sons-in-law (son = head of the compound —> will tell you where the - passer-by - ? passer-bys - passers-by (preferred, but: violation of word integrity) Other violations: Expletive infixation in English: -bloody-, -blooming-, -fucking- Abso-bloody-lutely but —> it violates word integrity *Ab-bloody-solutely > Despite these marginal counter-examples, word integrity is a strong factor in distinguishing words from phrases INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 80 1) declarative sentence (Anna is singing.)noun - auxiliary verb - verb in -ing form 2) interrogative sentence (Is Anna singing?)auxiliary verb - noun - verb in - ing form 3) imperative sentence (Sing!)verb by itself 4) exclamatory sentence (How beautifully Anna is singing!)wh-expression - adverb - noun - auxiliary - verb in -ing form 5.3 BUILDING SENTENCES & 5.4 PHRASE & CLAUSE STRUCTURES Structure: Clause è Phrase è Word è Morpheme Sentence = a grammatical unit consisting of clauses of phrases that are grouped together to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion sentence simple sentence non-simple sentence (= one main clause only) compound sentence complex sentence (= main clause + one or several subordinate clauses) Simple Sentence: INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 81 sentence level sentence function subject predicate word level noun verb Anna sang Compound Sentence: Anna sang a song and / but her brother played the guitar. main clause coordinating conjunction main clause Complex Sentences: Anna sang a song altough she was ill. main clause subordinate clause containing a subortinating conjunction The police questioned the woman who had witnessed the accident. main clause subordinate clause containing a relative pronoun INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 82 Clause = smallest grammatical unit that expresses a proposition Dependent (subordinate) Clause: She started to understand the topic. * cannot stand alone, can either modify an independent sentence or becomea component of it Independent Clause: a) She started to understand the topic b) She started to understand the topic and the teacher had a relief. > can stand by itself, may be joined to other independent clauses by way of coordinating conjunctions Subject and predicate = Immediate constituents of a clause / major constituents Subject: > The young man started to work at a drug store Exchanged: He worked Expanded: The young man, whose company went bankrupt, started to work at a drug store. INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 85 Subject Complement *A stand-up comedian is been by Jerry Seinfeld. & Compare: Objects can be passivized: 1a) Jerry Seinfeld called his parents. Object 1b) His parents were called (by Jerry Seinfeld) 2a) J.S. considered George one of the most ridiculous people on earth. Object Object Complement 2b) George was considered one of the most ridiculous people on earth. 2c) *One of the most ridiculous people on earth was considered George. Types of Objects: Indirect Object: An entity (often an annimate being) that is RECIPIENT of an action Direct Object: Object, entity that is AFFECTED by the action denoted in the clause example: J.S wrote E.B. a very nasty e-mail message. Ind.Obj. Direct Object > E.B. cannot be the result of writing Adverbials: & Temporal, spatial information, direction, etc. & Heterogeneous category, mobility & optional or obligatory (cannot be left out without changing the meaning of the verb): INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS J.S. was reading a book_at the café. optional J.S. put the book on the table. obligatory Clauses: * consists of a subject and a predicate « expresses a complete proposition «* subordinate (dependent) «* main (independent) Clause Types: SV J.S. is sleeping. SVC J.S. is a comedian. SVo J.S. is reading a book. SVOO J.S. gave E.B. a book. SVOC J.S. called E.B. a fool. SVA J.S. lives in NYC. SVOA J.S. put the book on the table. Phrases = syntactic units that usually consist of a head and a modifier J.S. knew it. J.S. knew that E.B. would be late for the meeting. 86 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS J.S. was ina good mood. J.S. was a liar. J.S. was very successful. Noun Phrase Head = Noun / Pronoun The interesting movie by Spielberg determiner pre-modifier head post-modifier Determiner Pre-modifier HEAD Post-Modifier the interesting movie that I mentioned. a(n) Hollywood it on love. any boring in America. enough featuring... much / many several my / your / his this / that a few both Verb Phrase Head = Verb INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS & Main/lexical verbs: be, do, have + all other verbs & Auxiliaries: 1. Modal verbs: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would 2. Primary verbs: be, do, have Aspect (progressive / continuous / perfect) > BE, HAVE Voice (passive) > BE Negative, interrogatives, emphatic forms > DO Verb Types: 90 Intransitive Transitive Copular sleep, shine, rain, die, follow, break, win, eat, sink, melt, etc. Note: some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive (e.g. follow) Monotransitive (SVO): hug, call, keep, etc. Distransitive (SVOO): give, send, etc. Complex transitive (SVOC/SVOA): consider, call, paint sth. red, make sb. a leader, keep sb. warm, etc. be, look, feel, taste, sound, keep, seem, etc. Adjectives: «* Attributive position (normally before a noun): The old man. ** Predicative position (normally after a verb): The man is old. INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 91 «* Can be pre-modified by adverbs (very, too, extremely, etc.): a very annoying song «* Comparable (comparative and superlative forms): more annoying, most annoying, older, oldest «* Most, but not all adjectives can occur in attributive and predicative position: > The dog is afraid *The afraid dog Polysemy: (multiple membership) example: round Adverb: Feel free to come round for a cup of tea. Preposition: It's round the corner. Adjective: This is a round table. Noun: Another round of rehearsals. Verb: He rounded his speech with a quotation. Determiners vs. Pronouns: That: That was great! That room was better. These: These need to go there. I have seen these cars before. Each: Each has its own thoughts. Each student will take the test. Prepositions vs. Subordinating Conjunctions Preposition: John was after Mark. Conjunction: John arrived after Mark left for Hamburg. INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 92 Adverb: They lived happily ever after. Syntactic Analysis: [The man] [saw[[the criminal] [with the binocular]]] = [NP] [VP[NP[PP[NP]]]] sentence level sentence phrasal levels subject noun phrase verb phrase object noun phrase INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS NP Det N Sentence VP NP NP PP 95 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS The the binocular > The criminal had a binocular. man Det saw the NP Det criminal 96 with INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS 6. SEMANTICS = the meaning of sentences & phrases 6.1 THE STUDY OF MEANING The principle of compositionality The dog bit. the man. »doer of the action“ > undergoes the action The man bit. the dog. »doer of the action“ > undergoes the action Ambiguity: 97