The Victorian Age: A Time of Social Change and Literary Innovation, Appunti di Inglese

Scarica The Victorian Age: A Time of Social Change and Literary Innovation e più Appunti in PDF di Inglese solo su Docsity! THE VICTORIAN AGE History and Society Queen Victoria When Queen Victoria was born, she was fih in line for the crown but aer her uncles failed to have children: ❖ 1837: The accession of Queen Victoria She became heir to the throne of William IV in 1837. At that time she was just 18 years old but then, she was to rule for almost 64 years and gave her name to an age of economic and scientific progress and social reforms. She was actually inexperienced at first, but found support in her Prime Minister Lord Melbourne. ❖ 1840: Marriage with Prince Albert Then, in 1840 she married her cousin Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and had nine children. Prince Albert was a clever man and Victoria was devoted to him and relied more and more on his advice and help and so, she gave him the title of Prince Consort, in recognition of his importance to her and to the country. Queen Victoria was regarded as a symbol of her time for her manners and morals and she was described as a “studious and thoughtful woman who’s near to the common man in the street”, in fact, she didn’t really feel part of the aristocracy and she never identified with it, besides her own sense of duty made her the ideal head of a constitutional monarchy, which she felt closer to: she provided stability by restoring the reputation of the monarchy, shaping a new role for the Royal family and reconnecting it with the public through civic duties and a profound understanding of her constitutional role. Victoria's reign (1837-1901) ❖ Internal policy: The Irish question Queen Victoria came to the throne during a difficult political period. ➢ 1845: The potato blight In fact, relations with Ireland worsened during her reign, owing to recurrent famines, especially the potato blight of 1845 and as a result, many people emigrated to the United States or to England as the only alternative to starvation. ➢ The rejection of the Home Rule Later on, a movement for Irish independence began, led by Charles Parnell, who requested Home Rule (self-government), but this was rejected by Westminster in 1886. ❖ European policy: Liberalism and free trade Britain’s European policy from 1830 to 1851 was shaped by the Liberal Lord Palmerston, Britain's foreign minister. He was convinced that British interests, identified with political liberalism and free trade, were opposed to those of European monarchies such as Austria and Russia, which were absolutist and protectionist. ➢ 1854-1856: The Crimean War A conflict came with the Crimean War in 1854, due to a dispute between Turkey and Russia over their border. Britain and France sided with Turkey, and Russia was defeated. ❖ Colonial policy During Queen Victoria’s reign the British Empire grew and expanded (the territories controlled actually included today’s India, Bangladesh and Pakistan) in order to consolidate overseas markets (exportation or importation from colonies) and to address the population surplus at home. Colonies ➢ Canada, Australia and New Zealand The “ Colonies Settlement” attracted immigrants from Britain who claimed the land and pushed the natives out. These were the first colonies to obtain the “dominion” (self-government) status: first Canada in 1867, Australia and New Zealand in 1907. That meant that they were free from direct control of the British Empire in their internal affairs, though not in matters of foreign policy and defence. They retained Queen Victoria as Head of State, and made up the British Commonwealth of Nations. ➢ Africa: from exploration to colonization The “scramble for Africa” had already started in the 19th century but initially, it was preceded by a period of exploration. In 1875, the British Government bought the majority of shares of the Suez Canal, which connected the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean. In 1882, the British invaded and conquered Egypt, and next British rule was extended to Uganda, Rhodesia, Kenya and the Niger territories. Rebellions and wars ➢ The Opium Wars In the mid-19th century, England was involved in the two Opium Wars (1839-1842; 1856-1860) against China, which was trying to suppress the opium trade (the exportation from India to China made by the East India Company). In the end, Britain won the war and gained access to five Chinese ports and control of Hong Kong. ➢ The Indian mutiny The most lucrative colony of the British Empire was India. In fact, in India, the cotton industry was destroyed to favour British made cotton goods, causing a lot of discontent. So, the Sepoys isolationism: under a free trade policy, goods and services could be bought and sold across international borders with little or no government prohibition. So free trade became the basis of a long economic boom and, thanks to its overseas possessions, Britain’s industrial and commercial power extended worldwide. ❖ 1875: The Trade Union Act The Trade Union Act made the activities of the unions of workers legal and as a result, they came to play an important role in the internal policy. Other Reforms ❖ 1847: Ten hours’ Act No more than ten hours a day for all workers. ❖ 1851: Common Lodging House Act Clean up towns struck by cholera and TBC. ❖ 1871: Emancipation of religious sects Catholics are allowed to hold government jobs and to attend Oxford and Cambridge Universities. ❖ 1891: Elementary education Act Free elementary education. ❖ 1899: Education Act School leaving age is raised to 12. Progress and Cultural trends In the mid-years of the 19th century, England experienced a second wave of industrialization which brought many economical, cultural and technological changes and advances. ❖ Industry and Science Thanks to the invention of the steam locomotive, the Victorian Age became the age of the railway, which by 1848 covered much of the country and made the triumph of industry possible. Moreover scientific research was increasingly applied to the invention and construction of machines: the telegraph, in fact, was invented following modern studies of electricity. So, in 1816 London was the first city in the world to boast gas lighting in city streets. ❖ The Victorian Compromise This was an age full of contrasts: ➢ An age of optimism On one hand, the British Empire extended to two thirds of the world, there was rampant industrialization and a powerful economy, optimism and faith in progress, advances in medical, scientific and technological knowledge. ➢ Presence of poverty and uncertainty On the other hand there was poverty and growing uncertainty. The Victorian Establishment refused to admit the existence of a materialistic philosophy of life and tried to cover the unpleasant aspects of progress (such as poverty and the bad conditions of the workhouses) under a veil of respectability, hypocrisy and optimism. Furthermore, the prudish morality of this age tolerated vice provided that it was discreet, under control and above all hidden from the public eye. For example: the upper and middle classes could not tolerate the word “leg” spoken in polite society but didn’t care about the social conditions that pushed women into prostitution. ❖ New Theories During this period some philosophers and scientist formulated new theories, which deeply shook, in a way, Victorian morals and religion: ➢ The Utilitarian philosophy Utilitarian philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham claimed that everything had to be judged according to standards of utility (bringing material happiness for the greatest number of people). So the key words of this philosophy were clearly: usefulness, happiness and avoidance of pain. ➢ Evolutionism In The Origin of Species (1859) Darwin advocated for the natural origin of man and for his evolution through the millennia as the result of natural selection, that is the selection based on the ability of the forms of life to adapt to the changing environment. This theory denied God’s role in the creation and contradicted the Bible. So Social Darwinism emerged as the belief in the survival of the fittest. Unfortunately, the unscientific nature of Social Darwinism didn’t prevent it from being used as a way to justify imperialism, racism and social inequalities. ➢ Concern about the working classes The growing cost of maintaining the Empire and of defending its military and economic preeminence led to a trade depression in 1870-1880. This affected the working classes in particular and socialism was one of the proposed remedies. It was based on the revolutionary theories propounded by the German philosopher Karl Marx about a new distribution of wealth, which he and Friedrich Engels wrote about in The Communist Manifesto (1848). The political and economic growth of the US From the Treaty of Paris (1783-1853) the US have grown economically and also politically, and expanded their territories quickly: by 1853 they went from coast to coast, with a clear frontier established between the United States, Canada and Mexico. Political growth ❖ Territorial expansion: Immigration and the American Frontier A fundamental contribution to the expansion of the US was given by the mass immigration between 1815 and 1865, mainly from Ireland, whose citizens escaped the Potato Blight famine, and from Germany. Immigrants were the labour force necessary for the expansion of industries and agriculture. They usually headed Westward, advancing continuously along the “Frontier”, the virtual border towards the Pacific. This became one of the American myths, presented as an open land of unlimited opportunities for strong and ambitious people. Moreover, the discovery of gold in California in 1848 gave further impetus to colonization in the so-called “Gold Rush”. ❖ 1861-1865: The American Civil War The political situation was unstable because of the economic differences between the northern and the southern regions: the North was industrialized and the South still had an economy based on plantations of tobacco, cotton and on the legal practice of slavery. The situation precipitated in 1861, when seven Southern states, declared their secession from the US and formed the Confederate States of America, aer president Lincoln proposed to ban slavery everywhere in the US. In April 1861, the Civil War began and it ended in 1865 with the defeat of the South. Finally, slavery was officially abolished in 1865 by the 13th amendment to the Constitution. Economic growth ❖ The economic rise of the US By the late 19th century, the US had caught up with Britain as the leading global industrial power, thanks to new technologies (such as the telegraph), expanding railroad network, and abundant natural resources. It was an era of deep economic growth, especially in the North and West, attracting more than 20 million immigrants from continental Europe. Such exceptional growth was accompanied by social and interracial problems that would break out in the next century. ❖ Common Features Victorian novels present some common features: ➢ Triple-deckers Novels are usually structured in three volumes, called “triple-deckers”. ➢ Realism The general tendency of the early Victorian novel was towards a mild realism but, on the other hand, the late Victorian novel featured a much more decided tendency towards Realism, an intellectual and literary movement that carefully studied the influence of social environment on man. In fact, novels represent the condition of life of Victorian people, in a realistic way and through sharp contrasts. ➢ Plots Plots are complex, usually adventurous, rich in character, unexpected events, surprises and subplots. ➢ Entertainment, instruction and moral aim Novels tend to entertain, instruct and confront readers with complex but not embarrassing issues. Novels have a clear moral aim. ➢ An omniscient narrator Stories are usually told by an omniscient narrator, who acts like a God, guiding readers so they can understand clearly. His voice accompanied the narrative with comments that in turn condemned, praised or gently mocked the characters' attitude and behavior. The first author to develop a more complex form of narrative was Emily Bronte with Wuthering Heights (1847). ➢ Reflections about the world Authors see themselves as entitled to make readers reflect on the incongruences of the world they live in. ❖ Late Victorian novels: Development of Novel Genres The term “Late Victorian novel” is usually applied to writers who lived during the last twenty years of Victoria's reign and the early 20th century. Several genres developed, some in connection with the rise of the British Empire and its celebration, others in line with the Naturalism that appeared in late 19th century European literature and widespread pessimism and finally others returning to the tradition of romance. ➢ Social novels: Domestic novels or novel of manners Dickens shows in his great novels his consciousness of social injustice, the poverty and suffering of the masses, political incompetence and corruption. In one of his works, called Hard Times, he deals, in fact, with the themes of inhumanity of the factory system. Then, the domestic novel found its best representative in William Tackeray (the counterpart of Dickens) with Vanity Fair (1847); the novel satirizes the hypocrisy and the moral corruption of the upper classes, with various digressions into morals and psychology. Later on, the subtitle, A novel without a hero, was added to reflect the moral ambiguity and lack of ideals of the central characters. ➢ Romantic novels by women novelists Through the 19th century women were not allowed to attend universities; their place was at home taking care of the family. It was therefore through fictional stories of adventures that female writers could break out of their condition. In fact, the Brönte sisters (Emily and Charlotte) highlighted in their novel most of the common Victorian themes from a unique female perspective. In particular, they wrote about love, death and Gothic themes (such as supernatural, science, breaking societal norms and the battle between good and evil). ➢ Fantastic novels: Horror and crime novels Rebellion against the Victorian values found its way into the crime and horror novels represented by The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886) by R.L. Stevenson. He was the first to develop E.A. Poe's lesson on psychological analysis of deeply disturbed characters. A reaction to the novel as a vehicle of moral message came with the nonsensical work of Lewis Carroll, who introduced reveries, comic disproportions in Alice Adventures in Wonderland (1865). ➢ Aesthetic novels The major representative of the Aesthetic Movement was Oscar Wilde, who wrote the novel entitled The Picture of Dorian Gray. Its philosophy followed the cult of beautiful things and a proclaimed indifference to moral and social issues. ➢ Colonial novel The expansion of the British Empire in the last part of the century led Rudyard Kipling to write the first colonial novels. His works mostly set in India justify colonization and extol the greatness of the British Empire. He coined the expression 'The white man's burden' for one of his poems; the phrase describes the white man's moral obligation to instruct other civilizations as regards to what is right or wrong; a clear justification of rampant English colonialism based on the 'inferiority' of native populations. ➢ Realistic novels or Naturalist novels The writers that chose this genre adopted a style influenced by the Naturalistic novel of Emile Zola. Naturalism developed in France at the end of the 19th century and grew from an interest in the new scientific discoveries, especially the theories of Darwin, presenting a view of man as a creature conditioned by heredity, by his own environment and by the circumstances of the moment, deprived of free will and at the mercy of an indifferent Fate. In their wish to be realistic, Naturalists tend to focus on the worst aspects of life and to present 'case histories', described with the detached precision of an impersonal and objective scientist. The greatest representatives in Britain were George Eliot and Thomas Hardy. ❖ The novel’s success The novel became the dominant form of art, establishing its priority for the 20th century and also for contemporary literature. Its success was due to: ➢ Serialization Serialization is the publication of books in serial installments or in chapters in magazines and journals. This was the dominant publication format throughout the 19th century. So better means of communication made it easier to distribute reading materials; the invention of new printing machinery and public readings, such as those held by Dickens, also contributed to the popularity of the novel. Serialization had important consequences both on the reading public and the structure of the novel: 1. Reading public Many periodicals were aimed at a family audience and therefore contents and themes could not be offensive for public morality. 2. Structure of the novel The serial method imposed an episodic structure on the plot and compelled writers to find cliangers and other stratagems to hold the reader's attention, and occasionally also to modify the course of the ongoing narrative to please readers. However, it also had its drawbacks. If successful with the public, novels tended to grow in length, leading to complicated plots which sometimes lacked coherence, and with characters being deprived of psychological depth. ➢ Increasing of the readers and of the buyers of books The number of people who were able to read or could afford a book increased. ➢ Circulating libraries People could finally borrow books thanks to the “circulating libraries”. ➢ Dimensions of the book Novels were easily portable objects and could be read everywhere. ❖ Characters Dickens shied the social frontiers of the novel: his characters were mainly from the lower and middle classes and he was the creator of unforgettable characters who “lived immortally” in the English imagination because they were oen associated with a repeated set of gestures and phrases. His aim was to arouse the reader's interest by exaggerating his characters' habits and the language of London's middle and lower classes. He was always on the side of the poor, the outcast and the working class. Moreover, children were also very important characters in Dickens's novels; in fact, there are a lot of instances of good, wise children in contrast with worthless parents and other grown-ups. The novelist's ability lay in portraying and dividing his characters into good and bad, to the point of becoming almost purely symbolic. ❖ Strengths and weaknesses As a writer, Dickens’ presented some strengths and weaknesses in his works: ➢ Strengths The main strength of Dickens’ style is his humor, through which he makes the strong points of his novels unforgettable. He is also very good at mixing social criticism with lively portraits of universal characters, combining the pathetic with the comic, and his ability to create dialogue is unmatched by any other English novelist. ➢ Weaknesses His strengths managed to hide his weaknesses, that is the melodramatic or openly didactic passages, which aimed to make the ruling classes aware of the social problems, without offending the middle class readers. Oliver Twist - Charles Dickens Oliver Twist is a perfect example of the best qualities of Dickens’ art: he combines the sentimental, melodramatic story of an orphan child exploited by a gang of thieves with keen social satire and realism. ❖ The Plot Oliver Twist was a poor boy of unknown parents; he was born in a workhouse in a small town near London in the early 1800s. His mother died aer giving him birth and he was brought up in a workhouse in an inhuman way, leaving a miserable life, eating little and suffering plenty of punishment. At the age of 9, he was taken to another workhouse, where as an adult, he was expected to work as well as suffer little food and lashings of punishment. One day, the boys were so hungry they elected Oliver to ask for more. So the child committed the unpardonable offense of asking for more food and Mr. Bumble the Beadle offered 5 pounds as a reward to anyone who was willing to take Oliver away. He was later on sold to an undertaker, but the cruelty and the unhappiness he experienced made him run away and go to London. There he met a young pickpocket on the road and fell into the hands of a gang of young pickpockets, trained by Fagin, an old Jew. The thieves forced Oliver to help them in their criminal activities but, unfortunately, the boy got caught on his first attempt at stealing. Mr. Brownlow, the victim, was a benevolent gentleman and he was stricken by the ragged and unhealthy appearance of Oliver and rather than charging him with the, he took him home and took care of him. However, Oliver was eventually kidnapped by some members of the gang, in particular Fagin and Bill Sikes, and was forced to commit burglary to Mrs. Maylie, who is a kind, wealthy old woman who lives with her adoptive daughter Rosie. The child was then shot during the job and the two women kept him with them. And finally, aer many incidents, the gang was caught by the police and Oliver was discovered to be a relation of Mr. Brownlow’s. So he was adopted by him and at last received kindness and affection. ❖ Main Themes The novel’s main themes are very clear: ➢ The innocence of the child In writing this novel, Dickens was influenced by his own experience as a child. In fact, Dickens himself lived the experience of poverty and child labour, so he oen wrote about the importance of preserving the goodness and innocence of children and equally condemned their corruption, denouncing the living conditions of the poor and the conditions in the workhouses. He oen described the unfortunate condition of children during the Victorian Age and the universal theme of the oppression of the weak by the strong. During this time, to solve the problem of the bad condition of poor children and orphans, free schools for the poorest were instituted, but according to contemporary reports they were little better than the streets those children came from. That's why they were called 'Ragged Schools'. Moreover, the character of Oliver represents how the innocence of children may be tainted by the sinfulness of their parents, or the cruelty of schoolmasters and strangers, such as Mr Fagin, who is seen as a devilish figure who tries to corrupt Oliver's pure nature. However, in this type of novel, children are always redeemed in the end and their original purity is rewarded by happiness and hope, while bad people get what they deserve and finally get punished. ➢ The evils of Victorian society Dickens attacked the social evils of his times including child labour, the recruitment of children as criminals, the presence of street children and the New Poor Law (1834). This law encouraged a large-scale development of workhouses where the poor were segregated into four distinct groups: the aged and impotent, children, able-bodied males and able-bodied females. They were run by a group of parishes and in theory they offered help to those in need; however, in practice, as Dickens points out in his works, instead of alleviating the offerings of the poor, the parish officials (who ran the workhouses) were greedy, lazy and arrogant, and they abused their rights as an individual and caused them further misery by being deliberately harsh, with little food and clothing. Hard Times - Charles Dickens Hard Times was published in 1854 and it is set in Coketown, an industrial city in the North of England (the fictitious name means “town of coke”, coke being a kind of coal used in industry). It’s Dickens’ only novel centered on the treatment of the industrial working class. ❖ The Plot In Coketown, an imaginary northern industrial city, Thomas Gradgrind is an educator whose motto is Facts, facts, facts'. He has founded a school where his educational theories are put into practice: children are taught nothing but facts, and he educates his own children, Louisa and Tom, in the same way, neglecting their imagination and affections. Mr Gradgrind suggests his daughter should marry Josiah Bounderby, a rich banker and the factory-owner of the Coketown factories. So Louisa, his daughter, acts on her father's principles and marries Josiah Bounderby, wishing to help her brother Tom in his career. Tom is given a job in Bounderby's bank, and eventually steals some money from it and casts suspicion on an innocent weaver, Stephen Blackpool. Later on, Louisa goes to her father to escape an affair with a man, a heartless politician who loves her, and she receives shelter from him. Then, she permanently separates from her husband and Tom leaves the country and dies abroad. Fortunately, Blackpool is cleared of all charges and in the end Gradgrind understands the damage caused by his narrow-minded and materialistic philosophy. ❖ Main characters The novel’s main characters are: ➢ Thomas Gradgrind He is a wealthy, retired merchant and the schoolmaster at the private school in Coketown. He is also an Utilitarian theorist: he stresses facts over imagination and reason over feelings. ➢ Louisa Gradgrind She’s Thomas' daughter and Bounderby's wife. Confused by her cold-hearted upbringing, she is totally disconnected from her emotions and alienated. ➢ Thomas Gradgrind Jr. He’s Gradgrind's eldest son. He becomes a dissipated hedonist, hypocritical young man as a result of his strict upbringing. ➢ Josiah Bounderby He’s Gradgrind's friend and Louisa's husband, who claims to be a self-made man. ❖ Main themes The novel aims to denounce the exploitation of the working class during the Industrial Revolution and it uses its characters and stories to denounce the gap between the rich and the poor and to criticise the materialism and narrow-mindedness of Utilitarianism, which was the basic Victorian attitude to economics.