LINGUA INGLESE 1 (LINGUA E FONOLOGIA), Schemi e mappe concettuali di Lingua Inglese

Scarica LINGUA INGLESE 1 (LINGUA E FONOLOGIA) e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! fonologia Phonetics 语音学 studies the phonic medium: the physical sounds we make when speaking. A phonemic transcription of speech tries to represent very accurately the exact sounds we make. The phonic medium can be studied from three points of view Articulatory: analyses and classifies the sounds we make from the point of view of the articulators we use (our speech organs – tongue, teeth, etc) Acoustic: studies the physical properties of the sound-waves we make Auditory: from the point of view of the way the hearer perceives the sounds Basic unit of phonetics and phonology: the phoneme, the minimum unit of sound Phonology studies how phonemes can combine Phonemes 音素 A phoneme is the minimum phonological element in a language system. Any phoneme is made up of a set of features: eg. Voiced/unvoiced/ nasal/non- nasal/aspirated/non-aspirated One phoneme is distinguished from another by contrast. i.e. 2 phonemes may have many features in common; but just one different makes it a different phoneme. Eg. /p/ vs /b/ Contrasting features Voicing is the distinctive feature here, making it possible to distinguish 2 different phonemes /p/ - bilabial, plosive, unvoiced /b/ - bilabial, plosive, voiced Phonemes vs allophones Phonemes can be described as the ideal, an abstract type. 音位可以描述为理想的、抽象的 类型。 This type is enacted (actually pronounced) as an allophone. The same phoneme may have different allophones. Eg. Clear and dark /l/ in English l The phoneme /l/ has two allophones in English: clear and dark /l/ /l/ before a vowel – as in Lot, lie, lay, loop – is post-alveolar /l/ before any other phoneme, or at the end of a syllable, is velarized, as in milk, built, pill, pool. But milk pronounced with a clear l is still comprehensible – the two are allophones ie. variants of the same phoneme, not different phonemes. English linguistics (articulatory phonetics) how do we make sounds? by modify the airstream that comes up from the lungs through the windpipe (trachea) the glotties(喉头) along the vocal tract(声道)--from the larynx to the lips and nostrils 鼻孔 the different between vowel and consonants vowels no obstruction to air stream consonants some kind of partial or total obstruction 3 major articulatory variables for consonants voiced/unvoiced vowels all voiced consonants nasal/non-nasal /m/ /n/ aspiration/non-aspiration /p t k / consonants MANNER of ARTICULATION 发音方式 ways of articulation Stops/occlusives/plosives Total obstruction of the airstream followed by rapid release so that the compressed air bursts out of the vocal tract /p b/ /t d/ /k g/. Fricatives Partial obstruction of the airstream, resulting in audible friction. Affricates the airtream is blocked but the blockage is realeased more slowly and a short period of friction is heard, combined symbols Approximants (median or lateral) the vocal tract is narrowed but not enough to cause turbulence, there is no friction Nasals air can escape through the nose as well as the mouth and the sound is nasal (Trills) 颤舌音 Continuous sound produced by part of the tongue rapidly touching and leaving another speech organ. PLACE of ARTICULATION BILABIAL: both lips being brought together LABIODENTAL ：lower lip being brought into contact with the upper teeth Dental: the tip of the tongue being brought into contact with the upper teeth ALVEOLAR: the tip of the tongue being brought into contact with the alveolar ridge ( upper teeth-ridge) PALATO/POST-ALVEOLAR – the tip of the tongue approaches the rear part of the alveolar ridge PALATAL – middle part of the tongue approaches the roof of the oral cavity: Only one in English [j] VELAR - the back of the tongue being brought into contact with the velum or soft palate e.g. Nasal /ŋ/ and Stops /k/ /g/. LABIO/LABIAL-VELAR - back of tongue approaches velum, as for velar sounds, but the lips are rounded /w/ GLOTTAL /h/ the vocal folds in the larynx are brought momentarily together to interfere with the airstream. Since the vocal cords cannot vibrate when fully closed, there is no voiced version. Used in some versions of city, butter, instead of [t]. 器官名称 larynx 喉 mouth嘴 trachea 气管 palate 腭 VOICING vowels definition no contact between articulators voiced claasification tongue position front central back tongue height high middle low lip shape rounded unrounded or spread length long short diphthongs sounds that consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another classification of diphthongs falling vs rising the 8 english diphthongs are all falling first part longer and stronger than the second part closing VS centering closing--the second vowel is produced with the jaws almost closed 第二个元音是在下巴几 乎闭合的情况下产生的 以 i结尾的双元音 以u 结尾的双元音 centering--the second vowel-the schawa- is produced in the center of the mouth 以schawa结尾的双元音 syllables 4 types of syllables a minimum syllable a single vowel in isolation /a:/ or/ ):/ a syllable with an onset 开始 a phoneme preceding the centre of the syllable bar car a syllable with a coda one or more phonemes after the center ought am a syllable with both an onset and a coda dog phonotactics 音位结构学 the study of the possible combinations of phonemes from the phonological point of view,syllables are possible combinations of phonemes (e.g. Consonant / Vowel / Consonant). 音节是音素 可能的组合 fl not lf 3 parts of a syllable The beginning onset - can be a vowel, 1, 2 or 3 consonants – which is called a consonant cluster The centre or nucleus vowel The end : the coda (can be 2-4 consonants) Closed & open syllables Closed syllable has one vowel at the beginning or in the middle of the syllable and ends in a consonant which “closes” it. The vowel can be short or long. Got / goat (/gɒt/ & /ɡəʊt/) beat bit (/biːt/ bɪt/) Open syllable has one long vowel (or diphthong) at the end of the syllable, and no final consonants - it is left “open”. No (/nəʊ/) she (/ʃi:/) No (/nəʊ/) she (/ʃi:/) COMMON SYLLABLES (English & Italian) THE MOST FREQUENT SYLLABLE In ITALIAN: CV (Consonant + Vowel): <Ca-sa> <Mi-la- no> No syllables in Italian end in two consonants In ENGLISH: CVC (Consonant+Vowel+Consonant): <bell> CCCVCCCC max! CONSONANT CLUSTERS Dividing up English words into syllables Divide words between consonants 1 if there are 2 consonants, split them Vowel + Consonant–Consonant + Vowel: e.g Convent – con-vent Distant – dis-tant Splendid – splen-did 2 When there is one consonant between two vowels, the word is divided after the vowel, leaving the first syllable open: e.g Open – o-pen Unit – u-nit Protest – pro-test 3 Usually when two vowels go together, they make up the same syllable. From SEGMENTAL to SUPRASEGMENTAL Phonology SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY: Analysis of individual phonemes / SEGMENTS (consonants and vowels) SUPRASEGMENTAL PHONOLOGY: Analysis of SYLLABLES – stressed and unstressed syllables Analysis of LARGER CHUNKS of sounds – phrases or utterances/ tone-units What is stress in a syllable? From the PRODUCTION point of view, it involves greater muscular effort. From the PERCEPTION point of view, stressed syllables are prominent. In English four phonetic variables appear significant as indicators of stress: PROMINENCE? INTENSITY - By uttering a stressed syllable more loudly; . VOWEL DURATION - By lengthening a vowel; PITCH - By marking pitch on a syllable; VOWEL QUALITY - By having a syllable in contrast to another one where the vowel has been reduced in value: ‘paper, ‘people, ‘earnest. Strong first syllables e.g. Ballad ‘bæləd Melon ‘melən Hundred ‘hʌndrəd Strong (stressed) second syllables e.g. About ə’baʊt Oppose ə’pəʊz Suppose sə’pəʊz STRONG AND WEAK SYLLABLES Variation between strong and weak syllables is very noticeable in spoken English Vowels in weak syllables shorter of lower intensity different in quality Syllabic Consonants /ə/ may be elided （省略） before /n/ or /l/ consonant absorbs vowel 辅音吸收元音 辅音变 成音节= consonant becomes syllabic. syllabic consonants = weak short vertical line under the consonant Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary Daniel Jones was the first editor of the dictionary, for the first 12 editions. What is the English Pronouncing Dictionary? A dictionary with 80,000 entries used by both native and foreign speakers. It provides information about the pronunciation of English with a British and American accent, using the International Phonemic Alphabet. The variety of Br English in the EPD is called: BBC English or RP (Received Pronunciation) or Southern Standard British English AND AmEng: General American. Key features of transcription in the EPD The phoneme principle Vowels, diphthongs, consonants Word stress and stress shift Syllable division Boxes about typical spellings and pronunciations The phoneme principle Is the basic principle of the transcription a small set of symbols used to represent distinctive sounds (phonemes) in English. ALLOPHONES are not marked in this dictionary. Syllable divisions A dot (.) divides the different syllables, except when there is a stress mark (‘ or ,). An apostrophe ' (a raised high mark) signals the primary stress in polysyllabic words The apostrophe precedes the stressed syllable. If there are two stresses in the word, the secondary stress is marked with a low apostrophe, before the syllable with secondary stress. The cutback bar is a vertical line ( | ) marks the place at which a word is divided and alternative endings can be shown without repeating the entire word; CONNECTED SPEECH weak forms What happens to individual sounds when we speak casually and quickly? In grammatical words Grammatical words almost all have two forms – one weak and one strong. Grammatical words include Articles weak forms The problem is I can’t swim. The /ðə/ problem is… A friend of mine is an astronaut. A /ə/ friend of mine… An apple a day… /Ən/ apple /Ə/ day… Stressed articles 变成 Strong forms If the articles are stressed, or if “the” occurs before a vowel, they are used in their strong forms. It’s not A problem, it’s THE problem. /ɪts nɒt eɪ prɒbləm ɪts ðiː ‘prɒbləm/ Prepositions Prepositions normally lead onto nouns > prepositions are in their weak form. 引导名词 时时弱音节 . I'm tired - I think I'll go to bed. to - preposition used normally > /tə/ When they precede pronouns > either weak or strong forms: I was looking for you. Stranded prepositions When a preposition is left at the end of the clause, it is said to be stranded (abandoned). e.g. What are you looking at? In this position > strong form At = /æt/ Auxiliaries Normally pronounced in their weak form: e.g. I was walking down the street… /wəz/ strong forms ---The strong form is also called the ‘citation’ form. When used on their own, without the rest of the verbal group, pronounced in their strong form e.g. I was/ wəz/ woken up late this morning. You were woken earlier than I was. /wɒz/ In short answers, strong forms 1 Do you like the actor Antony Hopkins? Yes I do. /du:/ 2 Don’t go home yet. I’m afraid I must. /mʌst/ Conjunctions In normal connected speech, the normal form is the weak one. and strong form /ænd/ When the word is stressed because of emphasis or contrast. Last summer I went to the United States AND to Australia. /ænd/ weak form /ənd/ or /ən/ but strong form /bʌt/ When the word is stressed because of emphasis or contrast. weak form /bət/ Multifunctional that relative pronoun – weak form. WEAK FORM of that: /ðət/ The one thing that I don’t encourage is putting off the exam til September. STRONG FORM: /ðæt/ That boy is my brother. (demonstrative adj) Why did you do that? (pronoun) Some Its most common use is as a quantifier: here it is normally WEAK: I’d like some apples and pears please. /səm/ strong forms other cases than The strong form is hardly ever used. /ðæn/ (strong form) /ðən/ (weak form) usually use better than ever words beginning with h JUST Elision 元音省略 & Liaison 连音/ˈliəˌzɒn/ / liˈeɪˌzɒn/ Economy of effort in speech when speaking quickly and casually, it is normal to simplify combinations of phonemes so as to minimize the effort of pronunciation.--PRINCIPLE OF LEAST EFFORT ELISION what is elision a sound or syllable is OMITTED to facilitate speech 省略 case Alveolar plosives (AP) /t/ /d/: weak final consonants APs can be elided if the following three conditions apply simultaneously: If they are in the coda of a syllable send them, can you hand me the spanner? If they are preceded by a consonant with the same voicing fast car; worst dreams; dust coat the AP is not followed by an h Send her the letter (d NOT elided) /t/ is often elided in negatives of verbs regardless of the voicing environment, the final /t/ is often elided I don’t know – /aɪ dəʊn nəʊ/ I can’t think /aɪ kɑ:n θɪŋk/ wanna gonna elision of /t/ in want and to. I want to go home -- I wanna go home in American conversational speech I’m going to buy a car - I’m gonna buy a car Liaison what a sound is INSERTED to facilitate speech Linking /r/ or Sandhi /r/ what In BBC English (non-rhotic) R is pronounced > before a vowel (e.g. red) or between vowels (around) R is silent > after a vowel (bars) If the following word begins with a vowel, the r is pronounced and is called LINKING R e.g Whe(re are A)nna and Paul? We’re meeting in the ba(r o)n the corner INTRUSIVE--These are sometimes (often) found in BBC English. They don’t need to be imitated, but they exist in rapid, casual speech /r/ There is another case in non-rhotic languages where an r is INTRODUCED: this is called INTRUSIVE R (引入r) /r/ pronounced even if not present in spelling /j/ If a word ends in /iː, eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ/, /j/ is sometimes introduced to smoothen the way to the next word, if it begins with a vowel. e.g Did you see it?/dɪdʒu siːj ɪt/ (note the coalescence in ‘did you’) They aren’t here /ðeɪ j ɑːnt hɪ/ It’s too high up /ɪts tuː haɪ j ʌp/ The toy on the table /ðə tɒɪ j ɒn ðə ‘teɪbl̩/ /w/ If a word ends in /uː, aʊ, əʊ/, it is common to introduce a /w/ if the following word starts with a vowel. I’m going to end here … /aɪm ‘ɡəʊɪŋ tuw end hɪə/ A few* of us /ə fjuːw əv əs/ How* are you? /haʊw ə juː/ No idea /nəʊw aɪ’dɪə/ EPENTHESIS 插入语 what a sound is INSERTED into a word to facilitate speech Ex: once /wʌnts/ length /leŋkθ/ something /‘sʌmpθɪŋ/ Glottaling or glottal stops Assimilation 同化 what one effect of the economy of effort in speech < one sound (normally a consonant) is assimilated to a neighbouring sound. TOTAL (in which one phoneme takes on all the characteristics of its neighbor) vs. PARTIAL Assimilation can take place either: FORWARD: one phoneme affects the one following it LEADING ASSIMILATION BACKWARD :one phoneme affects the one preceding it LAGGING ASSIMILATION THREE DIFFERENT TYPES Assimilation of PLACE OF ARTICULATION Examples: 1 Ratbag (nasty old woman) - tb > p [bilabial] oatmeal - tm > p [bilabial] The /t/ sound is replaced by a /p/ sound, which is closer to the bilabial plosive /b/ or the bilabial nasal /m/ 2 Alveolar stops /t/ /d/ /n/ = may become bilabial or velar ðæk kɑː That car bæb bɔɪ Bad boy bæg gɜːl Bad girl gʊb ‘præktɪs Good practice Assimilation of MANNER OF ARTICULATION PLEASE NOTE / t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p / pocket money put back split personality market price that man midnight blue white paper / d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p / bad pain good cook good morning grand master old boy old man red bag / n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p / iron man American plan on me brown paper one pair / t / changes to / k / before / k / or /g/ cigarette card short cut credit card smart card / d / changes to / g / before / k / or / g / red carpet good cook sand castle second class / n / changes to /ŋ/ before / k / or / g / action group open court common good roman calendar roman catholic golden gate Grand Canyon / s / changes to /ʃ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / nice yacht dress shop space shuttle nice shoes / z / changes to /ʒ/ before /ʃ/ or / j / cheese shop where's yours? these sheep /θ/ changes to / s / before / s / Assimilation of VOICING (ENERGY) e.g-s/-ies /s/ /s/ after a voiceless consonant stops, slowly, snow, house, mouse, mice, mustn’t, ants, wants, kiss. /z/ after a voiced consonant: nuns, woman’s, men’s, children’s, kids, tables, says, keys. /Iz/ horses, churches. after a sibilant e.g -ed /t/ stopped, looked, watched, popped,walked, talked, smoked, developed, washed. / after a voiceless consonant: /d/ judged, rubbed, snowed, tried, paid. after a voiced consonant/vowel: /ɪd/ wanted. after /t/ or /d/ plural <s> If previous consonant is voiced <s> is voiced: /z/ If previous consonant is unvoiced <s> is unvoiced: /s/ Voiced fricative /v/ becomes voiceless /f/ 在Voiceless consonant /t/ or /k/之前 Have to /hæf tu or tə/ not /hæv tu / tə/ Of course /əf kɔːs/ not /əv kɔːs Coalescence