LINGUISTICA INGLESE 3, Schemi e mappe concettuali di Lingua Inglese

Scarica LINGUISTICA INGLESE 3 e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! VERBAL SIGN: Jakobson states that the meaning of a word is defined by the word itself, or the verbal sign. To leam a new word, other verbal sign must be used to describe it. One cannot know if the word “cheese” refers to a cheddar or another type, or if it refers to the diary product in general, without using other verbal signs to clarify Translation: is the process of transferring a written text from Source Language to Target Language, conducted by a translator, or translators, in a specific socio-cultural context. Text: is the written product, or Target Text, which results from that process and which functions in the socio-cultural context of the Target Language. An activity (process): the linguistic, visual, cultural and ideological phenomena which are an integral part of a kind of transformation. 1. INTRALINGUAL translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. For example transition from ENG TO ENG 2. INTERLINGUAL: translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language. For example from English to Italian 3. INTERSEMIOTIC translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems. For example transition from a novel to a movie. MUTUAL TRANSLATABILITY: any comparision of two languages implies an examination of their mutual translatability. It is a concept that states that when two languages are being compared, the most important thing is that they can be translated into another. Jakobson puts heavy emphasis on grammar, and uses that to determine how different one language is from another. It is tedious to translate material when the target language has a rigourous grammatica] structure that is absent from the source language. DEFICIENCY: Jakobson believes that every cognitive experience can be described in existing language. However, there are times when there is no direct or similar translation for a word or phrase, this is referred to by Jakobson as “deficiency”. Loan words, neologisms, and circumlocution are used when encountering deficiency. (Neologism = a newly coined phrase // Circumlocution= excess words) TRANSLATION INTO CONTEXT: in a professional/ academic/ scientific context, we can see specific forms of written and spoken communication. Even outside the workplace we participate in professional interaction (with doctors, lawyers) NEWS DISCOURSE: news production is a professional context. Media language is not a type of language that everybody can use in daily communication because it is related to a specific professional context: Journalism. THE LANGUAGE OF WORK istitutional talk (elenca le varie strategie): examining the language of work will involve looking at the roles played by participants within specific social or professional context (boss-employee) the language used in a specific context differs from ordinary conversation in terms of: 1. GOAL ORIENTATION: participants in workplace conversations usually focus on specific tasks or goals/purposes. 2. TURN TAKING RULES OR RESTRICTIONS: in some professional context (courtroom) there are special turn taking rules in operation. But even if no special rules exists, there may be unwritten restrictions on who speaks when; for example in doctor-patient consultations, it is the doctor who tends to ask the questions. 3. ALLOWABLE CONTRIBUTIONS/TOPICS: there may be restrictions on what kinds of contributions are considered allowable. 4. GENRES: a conventional type of text that is produced and recognized by the members of the community it belongs to. In news discourse, for example we have genres such as newspaper, articles, editorials, magazine articles, talk show, radio interviews etc. News articles, Features, Portraits, Reportages, Interviews, Editorials, Reviews, Essays. News journalism Culture journalism Celebrity/people journalism Investigative journalism Gonzo journalism Citizen journalism. 5. Time/space: workplace and professional language interactions take place at a specific time and in a specific place. below. The INVERTED PYRAMID is the most traditional story form. Its origin are unclear, buti t is likely to have evolved during the American Civil War 1861-65), when stories were transmitted over telegraph wires, as part of a strategy to ensure that editors would get the story endings notwithstanding any truncations of the communication transmission. As for reporters, the inverted pyramid forces them to identify and rank the ost important elements in the naration, and use a fast-flowing style of writing, delaying or avoid altogether the recounting of minor details. Overall, this is considered to be a very good structure for summarizing and delivering news information quickly and effectively. On the other hand, it also has some drawbacks. In the first place, it does not encourage readers to read beyond the first part of the article: interest in an inverted pyramid story tends to diminish as the story progresses, because each successive paragraph contains information of less importance. The inverted pyramid is much criticized, and many newspaper editors encourage reporters to adopt new writing forms to increase the appeal of stories and to hold the reader’s attention. SOFT NEWS: has a focus on human interest and generally concerns less immediate, life-changing events, such as arts and entertainment, sport, lifestyle and celebrities. Audience want hard news to be informed about what is happening around the world and in their community. But they also want soft news to feed their general knowledge, to entertain them and to satisfy their curiosity. STRUCTURING THE STORY: when we move from news culture to actual news discourse practice, we can see two main features of news reporting at work: 1. Story structures (text organization patterns); 2. An impersonal language (language strategies) The principle of storytelling is a basico ne in news reporting and follows three main patterns: the inverted pyramid; the hourglass and the direct storytelling. HOURGLASS STRUCTURE: combines elements of both inverted pyramid and traditional story-telling. The main facts are told in the first paragraphs of the story, presented in order of decreasing importance as in an inverted pyramid. In the second part of the story the events are then narrated in chronological order, and space is left for detail, dialogue and background information. NARRATIVE STORY-TELLING a structure of presentation of the events, which are often told in chronological order (from benning to end). The purpose of storytelling: to overcome the impersonal and flat style of the inerted pyramid structure and create a story that has an emotional impact on readers. It is a strategy that frames news reporting (usually written) as an oral activity. The process of story-creation involves at least two elements: a narrator and a well-defined listener or audience. NEWS REPORTING AND LITERARY WORKS: the invisible border between fiction and non fiction + what is true and what is not true; stories for special purposes (informing and entertaining; the power of fake news) in news reporting, the relationship between time and truth is the key to understand the relationship between the fact and its representation, which is a culture specific trait of modernity in western societies: 1. Recent and old; 2. Fabula and plot; 3. The history and the stories. FABULA is about the sequence of events following a chronological order PLOT is the manipulation of this order by the writer or speaker through language. It is a form of dechronologisation. A MACRO-PROCESSING APPROACH TO TEXT : Macro-processing has to do with the external factors which have had some form of influence-world events, political affiliation of the writer, date when the text was written, for example- on the source text. In other words, we are focussing on extralinguistic context and reading the text with such influences in mind; we are forming assumptions, based on extralinguistic features, concerning the meaning and purpose of the text, and establishing why the writer choso certain expressions, certain lexical items etc. Micro-processing, on the other hand, involves analysis at the linguistic level, or processing, of a text in terms of its discourse constituents such as field, tenor, mode, cohesion, coherence, meaning (semantic structures). A news article is about real life factual events; its purpose is informative; is written in short paragraph of 2-3 sentences; can be structured in several ways; 5 WH are placed at the beggining IN CASE OF inverted pyramid; includes quotations from key people involved; usually written in the past tense in English/ passato prossimo in Italian; written in the third person, not first. DECISION-MAKING: refers to the act of evaluating several alternatives and choosing the one most likely to achieve one or more goals. PROCESSING TIME VS CONCEIVED TIME: THE distinction between conceived time and processing time- between time as an object and time as a medium of conceptualization- is crucial to linguistic analysis. The occurrence of any complex conceptualization occupies an interval of processing time. The passage of conceived time requires a span of processing time for its conception, but whereas processing time defines the present, a segment of conceived time is free to vary in both length and temporal location. DETECTING THE HEART OF THE STORY: mistakes depend on misunderstanding, that is a fault in grasping the main and crucial elements of the news —its heart. The heart is 1. Always a WH-element And often 2. A WHO or WHAT element 9 strategies: EQUATION > l’equivalente di una parola tradotta che suona simile a quella originale . the most obvious form of equation is that the loan word, where equality would seem absolute. Culturally specific words are often loane; italians play baseball and the english eat lasagna. This can even occur where equivalent terms exist in the two languages. English supermarkets now sell rucola, even though a bilingual dictionary would provide the translation rocker. Neologisms in technical fields generally originate in the english language owing to the international role played by that idiom in the world of science technology and business. A second form of equation is provided by the calque, where the target language adopts the source term to its own morpho-phonological framework. The italian football terms dribblare and crossare, derived from the english verbs to dribble and to cross, are not well- entrenched in italian. SUBSTITUTION > is the opposite process to equation. In which translation is used that may bear little or no morphosyntactic or semantic relation to the source text. Gulliver’s travels > i viaggi di gulliver Prenditi cura di tuo fratello > look after your brother DIVERGENCE: choosing the right form among potential contextual alternatives. Sempre: always,forever, still Viene sempre alle 8 Ti amerò per sempre Il Napoli è sempre il primo in classifica Syntactic divergence: SE DOVESSE SUCCEDERE Should it happen/ if it should happen/ were it to happen etc. CONVERGENCE: is opposite to divergence and quite rare for the en-it combination Accountant : ragioniere, contabile, commercialista In the case of convergence it is the context to solve word polysemy. AMPLIFICATION AND REDUCTION are about ADDING or TAKING AWAY language elements (usually lexical items) from/to the Source Text. Strategic use of passive: 1. We do not know who the agent is: 'I had the feeling that I was being followed.' instead of: "I had the feeling that somebody was following me.' 2.When it is obvious to the listener or reader who the agent is: 'She discovered that she was being paid less than her male colleagues.' instead of: 'She discovered that the firm was paying her less than her male colleagues.' 3. When it is not important to know who the agent is: 'Do you want a lift?' 'No thanks, I’m being collected.' instead of: 'Do you want a lift?' 'No thanks, someone is collecting me.' 4. When the agent has already been mentioned: "In the next session of parliament, new laws will be introduced aimed at stopping domestic violence." instead of: "In the next session of parliament, the government will introduce new laws aimed at stopping domestic violence." 5. When “people” in general are the agents: 'All the Beatles records can be borrowed from the central library. instead of: 'You can borrow all the Beatles records from the central library. The passive voice can also be used to purposely leave the performer of the action unspecified, a strategy that the reporter can use to avoid ascribing direct responsibility for an action to anybody in particular. So the passive example below does not state explicitly who is to be blamed for the incorrect administration of the drugs to the patients. The hospital staff made mistakes while administering drugs to the patients. Mistakes were made while administering drugs to the patients. The transition from an active formulation to a passive formulation means passing from an ACTION to a RELATIONAL framing of the scene. Action verbs express actions that involve a perfomer and an affected entity, while relational verbs express the relationships between entities. Action verbs: shoot, arrest, kill, kick... Relational verbs: be, show, represent, mean, reveal... Active framing: the narrative style is dynamic (FAST) and you have the impression to watch a movie, a series of images in motion Passive framing: the narrative style is static (SLOW) and you have the impression to watch separate images, a series of still pictures ACTION AND RELATIONAL VERBS: a distinction can be made between action and relational verbs. Action verbs express actions, while relational verbs express the relationship between entities. Action verbs can further be divided into transitive verbs, which involve an agent and an affected, and intransitive verbs, which only indicate that a participant is directly involved in the process being represented. Transitive constructions express the notion that an activity is transferred from an agent to an affected , but intransitive verbs do not involve an affected. Come riconoscere le fake news: Fake news refers to deliberate untruths, or stories that contain some truth but which aren't completely accurate, by accident or design. Some people also claim that truthful stories are "fake news," just because they don't agree with them. This can lead to the dangerous ignoring of vital advice. Fake news can have a negative impact on workplace behavior. For example, by damaging learning culture, and causing rumor and mistrust to spread. So, it's vital to know how to separate the real from the fake. You can do this by following these six steps: 1. Develop a critical mindset. . Check the source. . See who else is reporting the story. 2 3 4. Examine the evidence. 5. Don't take images at face value. 6 . Check that it "sounds right." le news online hanno favorito la diffusione delle fake news? Yes, because of the several website that are not qualified to write article of any genre. It is important to know how distinguish a fake news from a real news. oggettività del giornalista: definizione di genere e quale secondo te è più importante: modi di dire: Borrowing: (prendere in prestito parole da altre lingue tipo hotel, computer ecc) struttura del giornale: DIFFERENZA TRA PRINT NEWS E ONLINE NEWS: terms and lexis: descrivi the NY TIMES che giornale è, di che tipo di notizie parla): The NYT is an American daily newspaper. It is a broadsheet and it treat many argument such as politics, economy, news etc breaking news Questo termine viene usato soprattuto nel giornalismo televisivo per riportare un evento importante appena accaduto. Nella carta stampata si usa un'espressione simile: Hot off the press!, che significa che il giornale è fresco di stampa, è cioè appena stato stampato e le notizie sono quindi recentissime come riconosci che tipo di giornale stai leggendo: strutture delle news: online news: target audience: a target audience refers to the group of people that are most likely to be interested in your product or offer. And members of this group share common traits. The key factors to consider in target audience analysis are: Age Gender Location Language Career Socioeconomic status Lifestyle Interests and activities