linguistica inglese, Sintesi del corso di Linguistica Inglese

Scarica linguistica inglese e più Sintesi del corso in PDF di Linguistica Inglese solo su Docsity! Riassunto inglese 1 Capitolo phonetics DESCRIBING ENGLISH VOWELS All vowels are made with open approximation, and they are voiced. The vowel space is the space in which is possible articulate a vowel. The position of the tongue in the vowel space determines the vowel sound. We have three criteria importants, the vertical positionof the tongue such as how high and how low is it, the orizontal position of the tongue such as how forward aand how back is it, and if the tongue moves or not. Another important think is if the lips are rounded or unrounded. In the vertical articulation, during the articulation of i the tongue is in the high position, during the articulation of the a the bottom jaw lowers (la mascella inferiore si abbassa) so that the tongue is far from the roof of the mouth, while 0 2 5 B is somewhere in the middle. Then i is a high vowel and a a low vowel, and high vowel are called open vowels because the jaw is opened while low vowel are called close vowels because the tongue is close to the roof of the mouth (è chiusa all’altezza della bocca). We have also a mid vowels, the mid vowels are e that is a high mid vowel and 0 2 5 B that is a low mid vowel. We can say that during the articulation of the vowels u and i for the i the tongue is near the front of the mouth, but for the articulation of the u the tongue is back of the front of the mouth. For this reason we can define u a back vowel and i a front vowel. Vowels can be front, back or central. For example the vowel sound in learn 0 2 5 C is a central vowel. When in the production of the vowel the tongue does not move it are called monophthongs, while the vowels produced with the movement of the tongue are called diphthongs. In the pronunciation of the vowel the lips can be rounded or unrounded for this reason the vowel can be called rounded and unrounded vowels. The i in sheep is unrounded while the u in soup is rounded. The vowels can be also short and long, short vowels are shorter in duration, and long vowel are longer in duration. But the distinction into short and long vowel is only for the monophthongs because the diphthongs are always long. Capitolo 3 Segmental phonology Phonology is the study of the sound of the human language, the segmental phonology is the study of individual vowel and consonant sounds. We can distinguish segmental phonology in suprasegmental or prosodic phonology. In the words pin and bin to contrast the meaning of these two word we have 2 letters such as p and b that are called phonemes, the phoneme is a particular sound used to constrast the meaning in the words. To indentify the phonemes it’s necessary a minimal pair test that is in 2 words like men and pen we have 2 identical words in all the aspects except in one such as the sound p and b that if we replace one of these sound with another in the same position we will get a different meaning, and for this reason p and m are two different phonemes. All the sound are classified in obstruents and sonorants. Obstruents are all the sound produced when the air in its passage meet an obstacles and after crossing these obstacles can get out of the mouth, while all other sound such as vowels, liquids, and nasal are sonorants. The sonorants are all the sound produced with no obstruction but the air can flow freely out of the mouth. The nasal instead are all the sound produced when the air blocked in the mouth find another way to escape such as the nose and passes through the nose. Normally there is a voiceless obstruent phoneme that constrast with voiced obstruent phoneme such as p vs b when p is a voiceless obstruent phoneme and b is a voiced obstruent phoneme and these phonemes are called plosives, or we have s vs z that are respectively voiceless and voiced fricatives phonemes, or the voiceless and voiced affricates for example ʧ and 0 2 A 4. llophones Sounds that are differents in some respects but that aren’t used to create a different meaning in a word are called allophones. The allophones are for example the phoneme /t/ in the word took [w] that indicate the lip rounding and the phoneme [t] in the word take, tally ecc with no lip rounding. So [t] in tally and [tw] in took are allophones of the phoneme /t/. Assimilation One reason for phonemes have the allophones is assimilation. Assimilation is when a phonological segment changes the previous segment or the next segment. And the assimilaton is very important especially in the fast speech. A distinctive feature A distinctive feature is a particular property of phoneme, for example /p/ and /b/ differ for a distinctive feature such as the sound. The presence of a feature is indicated by + and its absence is indicated by -. The sound in this case is absent in /p/ and is present in /b/ . Natural classes The natural classes are groups of phonemes that share( condividono)some features ( alcuni tratti). The phonological phenomena never apply to a random group of segment but always to phonological segment that have some feature in common. Labialization Some common types of assimilation found in English is for example the labialization such as the lip rounding. And this lip rounding belongs ( appartiene) to a secondary articulation. The labialiazation is a secondary articulatory feature of the sounds, it is restricted to the consonants and involves ( coinvolge) the contraction and the lip rounding during their pronunciation. In the IPA( INTERNATIONAL PHONETICAL ALPHABET )labialization is indicated by [w]. Palatalization Another type of assimilation is the palatalization. In phonetic palatalization refers to a way to pronounce a consonant in which part of the tongue moves near the hard palate. A consonant pronounced in this way is called palatized consonant. Palatalization is another type of secondary articulation, in fact palatalized consonants have a palatal secondary articulation or two places of articulation one of which is palatal. Palatalization refers to a secondary articulation of consonants when the tongue is raise toward(viene sollevato) the hard palate and the alveolar ridge during the articulation of the consonants. Palatalization is marked by the simbol [j]. Velarization Velarization is marked by the symbol [˜] andis another type of the secondary articulation. A velarized sound is produced when the back of the tongue is in contact with the soft palate. The only velarized sound is the 0 2 6 Bphoneme /l/. Velarized [ ] is also called dark l, and non velarized [l] is also called clear l. but these two types of /l/ are two allophones of the phoneme l. The dark [l] follows the vowel after the syllable for example in the word MILK ,while clear [l] precedes vowel of the syllable for example in the word LOOK. THE PHONEME OF ENGLISH To understand the phonological behaviour of consonant phonemes we must consider the various types of consonants, in terms of the natural classes. The fist class that we consideri s the obstruent. The obstruent 0 2 A 4( occlusiva in italiano) is a speech sound such as [k] and [ ] that is created when the airflow is blocqued for an obstacle. And the obstruents contrast to the sonorants that is created when the air flow freely without no obstacles. All the obstruents are the consonants, while the sonorants are both the vowel and the consonants. Plosives Obstruents are subdivided in plosives such as ( p, b, k, g , t, d). the plosives are sounds produced with a complete obstruction in the vocal tract, and often followed by a air release abrupt( spesso seguito da un rilascio dell’aria brusco). When a voiceless plosive ( the voiceless plosive are p, t, k and the voiced plosives are b, g, d) occurs at the start of the syllable with the primary stress in a word it is called aspirated. The release of this voiceless plosive is accompained by a puff of the air released audibly before the start of the voicing of the next segment. Aspiration is represented by a diacritic symbol such as [h], and the primary Phonology beyond the segment Introducing prosodic phonology Prosodic phonology is the study of the properties of the speech, such as stress and intonation, in other word all the aspect that are not represented by the ortography. For the stress is suprasegmental nature is represented by the prominence of the syllable in a word for example produce (noun) where the more salient syllable is the first and produce ( verb) where the more salient syllable is the second. The syllable Each syllable is divided into onset and rhyme that can be divided into nucleus and coda. Consonants that are after the nucleus are called coda just because they are at the end and close the nucleus. Words like lay, see, and city have onset and nucleus but not a cda because coda is caracterized by a consonant,and also a onset, but words like oil and eat have a nucleus and a coda but not a onset. Words like plan and strives have a onset nucleus and coda. The nucleus can be simple or complex,simple if it contains a short vowel not followed by a consonants as in city or can be complex if it contains a long vowel or diphthongs as in lay and see and if contains a nucleus and at least one coda consonant like in the word plan and strives. We have also a open syllables and a closed syllable, open sillable end in a vowel but closed syllable end i a consonants. Open syllable are for example words like: see, blue ect while closed syllable are words like at or and, that end in consonant. Syllable division Sonority denotes relative loudness of speech sounds. phonetician have shown that the vowel are louder that consonants, but there are vowel that are louder than other vowels and consonants that are louder than other consonants. And to explain this fact the phoneticians have proposed a principle called “sonority sequencing generalization”. Sounds are ranked on a scale of 1 to 11 where the voiceless plosives are the least sonorous and the open vowels are the most sonorous, and the nucleus of syllable in English are only the sound with a score of 7 on the scale of sonority. And each sylable has just one peak of sonority that has the function of nucleus. Syllable stucture is governed by two important principles: sonority sequencing principle and onset maximalization principle. With the sonority sequencing principle the increase of the sonority moves from left-hand margin of the onset of the syllable and declines passing from the nucleus from the right-hand of the margin of the coda. Normally English syllables obey the sonority sequencing principle. But there is a violation of the sonority sequencing principle for example, English allows words like spoon than the /s/ is followed by a plosive that has less sonority that the fricative alveolars /s/ then the incrase of the sonority in this case doesn’t occur like the sonority sequencing principle. Syllable weight Rhymes determines syllable weight. We have a light syllable that is a open syllable that contains a short vowel, while the heavy syllable is a syllable which contains a long vowel or a coda consonant. We can consider that syllable weight plays a key role in stress placement. The metrical foot and word stress Stress is very important in English. The more prominent syllable is called stressed and the less prominente syllables is called unstressed. The main elements to create a prominence are the higher pitch and the greater duration. Sometimes we have also syllable more prominente and syllable that aren’t totally lacking in salience. In fact exists syllable with primary stress and syllable with secondary stress. Primary stress is 0 2 C 8 0 2 C Crepresented by a [ ]and secondary stress is represented by [ ]. When we have a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable we constute a metrical foot, and a word may contain one or more metrical feet. In a word like huMANE the weak syllable “hu” is followed by a strong syllabe such as “MANE” and this type od foot is called iambic foot, because a iambic foot is when a unstressed syllable precedes a stressed syllable while the word PRINter is trochaic foot because a strong syllable is followed by a weak syllable, then a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. Word stress English is a language in which the weight of the syllable is very important for the placement of the stress. English stress interact with syllable weigjt in different cases, we can say that monosyllabic word must have a heavy syllable ( a heavy syllable is a syllable caracterized by a long vowel, a diphthongs or a coda consonants) and this type of word are the better site to the placement of the stress, while in the word with more syllables only one syllable can receive a primary stress, and the placement of stress is influenced by many factors that are different for the different class of word, for example nouns followed a rules and verbs and adjectives followed another rules. Normally trysillabic nouns are not stressed on the final syllable but on the penultimate syllable such as second from the end or antepenultimate syllable such as third from the end. Intonation Intonation is pitch modulation used on the entire utterance. And the intonation must be distinguished from the tone that is used to distinguish word meanings. In English pitch modulation is never used to distinguish word meaning. Morphology: word structure Morphology is the study of internal structure of words. A word can be created by two existing full words for example “ear-witness” and also combining pieces of words creating a blended word like “televangelist” that is a word created with the combination of television and evangelist. A word alone can represent an utterance in fact for example “boys” is a word that said in a determinated context can be represent an utterance. But a word is also a smallest unit that can be manipulated by syntax. Simple and complex words In linguistic a morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language, infact if we take the word boys we can see that this word is caracterized by two morphemes boy that is a minimal unit which has a meaning and s that has a grammatical function. Word-form A word-form is a shape that represents a word in speech or writing. In spoken language we call eord-form orthographic words. And normally a ortographic word is preceded and followed by a space or a puntuaction mark. Conversely( al contrario) in web-speak the words are represented as all one word. The word-form in spoken language is called the phonological word and the words can present a syllable tha contain a primary stress. Lexeme A lexeme is used when we refer a vocabulary item, for example speak, spoke, spoken, are different manifestation of lexeme speak. Grammatical word Grammatical word are lexemes with morfological and syntactic rules. For example spoke is the past tense form of the verb speak, and spoken is the past participle form of the verb speak. In linguistic a morpheme is the smallest unit of language that is its own meaning. We can distinguish a free morpheme and a bound morpheme. Free morpheme is a morpheme that occur in isolation like the words, dog, deserve , write ect, while a bound morpheme is a morpheme that occur not in isolation like “rewriting” that is caracterized by re-write-ing respectively thee morphs. Any form that is utilized by represent a morpheme is called morph. The allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme, for example indefinite article of English has two allomorphs a and an that have exactly the same meaning but are used in different contests, for example a is used before to words that start with consonants and an is used before words that start with a vowel. Allomorph is an alternative pronunciation of a morpheme in a particular context. For instance, the plural morpheme in English, generally written as {s} has 3 allomorphs. /s/ as in cats /z/ as in dogs 0 2 6 A / z/ as in boxes Word structure: a closer look Root base and affix A base is a word in its simplest form, in fact in the word writing the base is write and to this base is attached a suffix ing to create a new word like writing. When to a base is attached a affix we create a a new word and when the affix are before the word it is called prefix while when the affix is after the word it is called suffix. An affix is a bound morpheme that must be attached to a base. The base of a word may be a root. Root is the primary form of a word, is the basic linguistic unit and is the originally word form and it can have a own meaning or can’t have own meaning. The affix such as prefix and suffix can be attached both root that base. Also we can distinguish a lexical morphemes and functional morphemes.lexical morphemes are morphemes that belong to vocabulary class (classe del lessico) and belong to an open class in which new terms can be introduced. In this class there are nouns, verbs and adjectives. Functional morphemes are instead morphemes classified according to the function in the word. And these types of morphemes belong to a closed class, such as a class in which can’t be introduced new elements. They are pronouns, determiners, and prepositions. Inflection versus derivation Derivation and inflection are two important categories of change in morphology. When we talk about of derivational morphemes we refer to an affixes which are added to a lexeme to change its meaning or function. In fact thanks to prefix and suffix we have changement of category of the words, for example, -ly changes the adjective sad into the adverb sadly. While Inflectional morphemes are affixes which carry grammatical meaning (for example, the plural -s in cats) and they don’t change the part of the speech or the meaning of the word, they function to ensure that the word is in the appropriate form so the sentence is grammatically correct. Morphological processes Conversion Conversion or zero-derivation is a process in which is created a new word assigning to an existing word new syntactic category withouth changing its form. For example: take the fast( adjective)train - the train goes very fast(adverbs) Affixation The affixation is the construction of words that involves the use of affix. Affixes can be prefix when they stay before the word or suffix when they stay after the word. Also w have another affix such as infix. Infix is an affix inserted in the root itself but the use of infix in English is very marginal. Zero morph A zero morph is an allomorphe of a morpheme in which the distinction in grammar isn’t represented in the significant, is the absence of a morphological element that represent this particular distinction, for example we have in English the word sheep that is used the same word both the singular that the plural. Internal change Sometimes the inflection is done changing a vowel in the root (a volte la flessione viene fatta cambiando una vocale nella radice). For example : foot-feet, mouse-mice ect. Exponence Exponence is the correlation between an abstract linguistic category and its exponents. We have two types of exponences: simple exponence and cumulative exponence. Acronysm and abbrevation are processes when are represented concepts or the names of the organization with the reduction of the initial of the word. In case of abbrevation the reduced form of the word doesn’t constitute a well formed syllable and the letters can’t be pronounced as a word. For example EU( European Union), while in case of acronysm the reduced form of the word constitute a well-formed syllable for example: NATO( North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Borrowing English have in its vocabulary many words that belong to another languages, and this phenomenon is called borrowing, infact words like: resources,lexicon, incorporates, languages and vocabulary also are foreign (straniere) words imported. Capitolo 6 Grammar: words ( and phrases) There are 11 word classes, and 4 of those 11 word classes nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs are called N.A.V.A words. These 4 word classes are very important because give an informations, have derivational morphology infact we can create nouns, verb, adverbs, adjectives by adding suffixes, like the words: teach +er, wonder+ful ect. These classes have a verylarge number of members, infact English has many thousands of nouns, verb, adjectives, and adverbs. Nouns Nouns is the most numerous word class. The nouns have the function of to be a head of the noun phrase. Many nouns have differentes suffixes that give to some nouns different forms, like the suffix –er in singer, or –ity in university, -ness in goodness ect but there are also exceptions for example longer is an adjective, or linger is a verb. Most nouns change their form in the passage from singular to plural adding a –s or –es, and or changing their form in other ways like –woman-women. Meaning: the nouns that referring to physical things, like people, objects, ect are called concrete nouns like the word “book”, students” ect while nouns referring to states, emotions, events, times are called abstract nouns like the word “ birth”, “happiness”, “ life” ect. Alsowe have a count nouns and non count nouns. Count nouns are nouns that can be counted and have a plural form while non count nouns are nouns that can’t be counted and they haven’t a plural. Count nouns are for example book, table, ect while non-count nouns are words like gold, ect. Also we have a proper nouns that are nouns that refer to the person’s names like John, Melissa ect and normally begins with a capital letters and designed individual person, place ect, and they don’t have plural form and don’t occur after “the” or “a/an”. While common nouns are nouns that refer to types of things like the word grandmother, car, ect and the can occur after the detremines “the” or “a/ an”. Exists also another type of nouns, such as collettive nouns that are nouns that in the singular form they refer to groups of people, persons or things like for example “team”, “family” ect. Adjectives Adjective usually have two functions: like a head( main word) of an adjective phrase [Dukes can be(very rich)] and as modifier in a noun phrase for example [a rich duke]. Adjectives can have a comparative and superlative forms, with the add of suffixes like -er, and –est, but can have also a longer form with the add of another word before the adjective in particular the adverbs –more and –most like more comfortable. There are also irregular adjectives that have special comparative and superlative forms, like –better, -good, and –best. Adjectives have also different types of meanings: physical qualities of colour, size and shape like the words: -green, -large, -tall ect. Physicological qualities of emotion like: -funny,-amazing ect. Evaluated qualities like the words: -good, -wrong, beautiful ect. Verbs The function of verbs is in particular that the verbs can stay alone in a verb phrase, or can be preceded by other verbs called auxiliaries. Verb phrase contain a main verb, for example in the sentence: one morning the little girl was hurrying along the street as usual. In this sentence the main verb is –hurrying. Forms: some verbs have derivational suffixes like –ise, or –ize( realise/realize) and –ify( clarify). Much important for verbs are inflections. Each verb have 5 different inflectional forms like: -s form, -ed form, -ing form, and –en form. Most verbs are regularly and for these verbs the –ed form and –en form are identical. But also we have verbs irregularl that the –ed form and –en form are presented in differnt ways. For example the –en form is so called because have the distinctive suffix –en instead of –ed. but irregulars verbs are forms without any suffix. The meaning of the verbs is that verbs can express actions, events and states. Adverbs Many adverbs add a kind of circumstancial infomation like place, manner and time. Some adverbs modifies other adverbs and adjectives. For example : -fairy new, very hurriedly ect. An adverb can stay alone as the main element of the aderb phrase or can be preceded or followed by another word which is ofte itself an adverb( che è spesso lui stesso un avverbio). Many adverbs presents the suffix –ly and many adverbs resemble to adjectives in fact they have superlatives and comparatives forms like : -soon, -sooner, -soonest. And also are adjectives that don’t resemble to adjectives and don’t present suffix for example –now, -then, - so, -too ect. Adverbs can express many differnt types of meaning. Determiners Determiners begin noun phrases and sometimes are obbligatory. In fact if the head of a noun phrase is a singular count noun the determiners “the” is necessary and it must be added. –the and –a/an are called respectively definite and indefinite articles, and are very common. The determiners aren’t only these in fact we have –that, these; -all,-some, -any- no ect. Pronouns Pronouns are word used to substitute a noun. For example the pronoun she can refer to nay female person. Some common pronouns are –I, -me, -myself , -we, ect Numerals Numeral includes cardinal number like : -one, two three ect and ordinal number like – first, second, third ect. Prepositions Preposition are used to express relation of possession, place, time and introduce a prepositional phrase. Conjunctions Conjunctions are very important and they linking (collega) one or more word in a phrase and are subdivided into two important categories, subordinating and coordinating conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions are the element that introduce a sentence that is less important of the main sentence, while coordinating conjunction are conjunction that linking two or more sentences that don’t have less importance of the main sentence. Auxiliaries Auxiliaries are verbs that precede the main verb in the verb sentence. We can distinguish the modal auxiliaries that are could, would, might, should that are also the past tence of the verb can,will, may and shall. And the primary auxiliaries are be, do,and have. They are very irregular and are the only verbs that have irregularity on the third singular person such the –s form because for –be we have is, for –do we have does, and for –have we have has. Discourse maker Are word and expressions that we use to show the discourse structure. Semantics Semantics is the study of meaning in the language. The linguistic semantic is the study of the meaning that is used by human for express themselves through the language. Reference deal (riguarda) the relationship between language and world. Reference is a relationship between parts of language and things outside the language in the world. For example reference is the relationship between the linguistic expression “the car” with the vehicle which I currently driving. Identity identified by the linguistic expression the car is called referent and the term the car is called a referring expression. Reference is the relationship between a sign or symbol signifies something, while referent is the thing signified. Reference is traditionally associated with the existence, in fact when the speakers use a referential expressions they present the refernt of these expressions as existingin non-linguistic world. For example if we speak about entities or situations which exist not in reality but in the books, films ect linguistics expressions like Harry Potter, unicorn ect are not referential because they don’t have a referent in the real world. Types of reference: reference can be variable ora constant. Variable when reference refer to a different type of that object, while constant reference refer to same thing. For example variable reference can be a book in fact there are many types of books, while a constant reference is America. Many referring expressions don’t identify situations, events or persons but are used like modifiers or predicates. While the non-referential expressions have the grammatical function like article and demonstratives and auxiliaries verbs. The same linguistic expression can be referring or non referring expression on different occasion of use. Different types of referent A linguistic expression” la matita”( per esempio) is called definite when the addresse can identify the referent of this linguistic expression, while is called indefinite expression when can’t be identify by the addressee. The identification is it allowed to many factors, past experiences, the life on the same planet, in the same country, or in the same town. In English definite and indefinit distinction is represented by articles placed in initial position of a noun phrase, -the is used with the definite singular and plural nouns while a/an is used to indefinite singular nouns countable and the plurali s represented by a zero-article. Indefinite reference can be divided in specific and non specific. Linguistic expression is used with specific reference if the speaker has a particular entity in mind, if the speaker has no entity in mind the linguistic expression is used non specifically. Reference and meaning To understand the people we are able to identify the referent of the linguistic espression that they are using. And we can say that many linguistic expression don’t refer but designate. And some expression have a meaning and no meaning. To understand the differences of the expressions from each other we need of sense. Sense: the sense is the contextual meaning. Now while the reference can be proved by the thing in the real world, sense doesn’t have a real object and we have imagine and compare to our experience. Sense as relation between language expressions. Sense in relationship between words in a language system aim(punta) to capture the only how words differ from every other. The sense relation are: recurrent because recur frequently in the vocabulary and discriminatory that embrace some pairs of lexical items. The major sense relation are: hyponymy: when a meaning of a word is included in another word. Meronymy: is the semantic relation based on the relationship between the part with the whole. For example leg is a meronymy of the body because indicates a part for the whole and the whole in question is the body.