Metaphors in Everyday Language: Nominalisation, Style-shifting, and Code-switching Study -, Appunti di Linguistica Inglese

Scarica Metaphors in Everyday Language: Nominalisation, Style-shifting, and Code-switching Study - e più Appunti in PDF di Linguistica Inglese solo su Docsity! LINGUISTICA INGLESE 2 LEXICAL METAPHOR For most people, METAPHOR is a device of the poetic imagination and rhetorical flourish, meaning that metaphors are indeed a matter of the extraordinary rather than ordinary language. However, according to Lakoff and Johnson seminal texts on metaphors, METAPHOR is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but also in thought and action. OUR ORDINARY CONCEPTUAL SYSTEM, that is the way we think and act, is fundamentally METAPHORICAL in nature. Therefore, the way we think, what we experience and what we do every day is a matter of metaphor. Our conceptual system is not something we are normally aware of: we usually think and act somewhat automatically along certain lines. What these lines are is however by no means obvious. One way to find out is to look at language. Since communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting, language is an important source of evidence for what that system is like. Language is something that identifies us, some cultures. The boundaries of the language are the boundaries of identity. Metalanguage: is language that explains language. From the perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics, lexical metaphor are recognised as a RESOURCE for ENACTING INTERPERSONAL MEANING in discourse, that is how we use language to interact with other people. We have a choice when we want to communicate something to someone: using a literal expression or using a metaphorical one. Within the APPRAISAL system that we will explore during this course, METAPHORS constitute a means for «provoking» an attitudinal interpretation. Typical Metaphorical More congruent Less congruent Literal What is not metaphorical is typical (normal, but in linguistic does not exist). What is typical is what is frequent. Another metalanguage is less congruent (metaphorical) more congruent (typical) We talk about degrees. This kind of metalanguage can be switchable. My lawyer is a shark. Why this man = this? Lexical metaphors exploit simultaneous similarity and difference with the correspondent literal expressions. The metaphorical expression has some elements of similarity with the literal expression, but also some elements of difference. It is thanks to this ‘clash’ that we actually perceive its ‘metaphoricity’. My lawyer is a shark – element of similarity = aggressive, ruthless element of difference lawyer = human; shark = animal. Metaphor indeed involves talking and potentially thinking about one thing in terms of another, where the two «things» are different, but some similarities or correspondences can be perceived between them. Metaphors are a question of word choice: to express a meaning we have a choice between a more congruent and a more metaphorical wording. If we choose one instead of the other the effect is different We use metaphors to talk and think about subjective, poorly delineated, abstract and/or complex experience in terms of experiences that are more concrete and image rich. Etymology of “Fall in love” • fall (v.) To fall in love is attested from 1520s. Meaning • fall - pass suddenly and passively into a state of body or mind; fall into a trap; she fell ill; They fell out of favor; fall in love; fall asleep; fall prey to an imposter; fall into a strange way of thinking; she fell to pieces after she lost her job Connect metaphor and culture: a very old lexical metaphor in the English language. SOME COMMON LEXICAL METAPHORS IN ENGLISH He has no direction in life; he is lost; we are at the crossroads; she will certainly go places; don’t let anyone stand in your way, there is no distance parents won’t go for their kids > LIFE IS A JOURNEY I can’t digest the entire book; those ideas are half-baked; that’s food for thought; let me stew over that one; this is my bread and butter; a piece a cake > IDEAS ARE FOOD LIFE IS A JOURNEY / IDEAS ARE FOOD The systematicity of these metaphorical expressions has led scholars to talk about such things as conceptual metaphors. Q: Provide a more congruent way, or not metaphorical way to say the same thing 1. A parent would do anything for their kids 2. Ignite power in the American dream/ move the American Dream Q: What is the difference between the metaphoric expression and the congruent expression? A: Both metaphors communicate abstract concepts – responsibility, hard work and idealism – through familiar and concrete actions Q: This is a political video. What is the message of the metaphor/s ? A: The metaphor of Biden’s journey home and back constructs a narrative in which he is represented as a hard working, generous and reliable father for whom family and children are as important as politics. He symbolizes the average middle class American who, if elected, will remain close to the people, revive the ideals of the American dream, and be a father to all young people in the nation. GRAMMATICAL METAPHOR EXPERIENTIAL METAPHOR AND NOMINALIZATION EXPERIENTIAL METAPHOR When the transitivity analysis reveals that the congruent (i.e. typical) Transitivity structure of the clause – with reference to ‘what is going on’ – is not realized, chances are we have an experiential metaphor of Transitivity. TASK 1 - COMPARE THE FOLLOWING THROUGH A TRANSITIVITY ANALYSIS  The year [[the villa was built]] saw the end of 20 years of war with France  In the year [[the villa was built]] 20 years of war with France ended  Which of these does not conform to a congruent Transitivity representation? Why? TASK 1 - KEY The year [[the villa was built]] saw the end of… Senser Pr. Mental Phenomenon In the year [[the villa was built]], 20 years of war… ended Circ: Temporal Actor Pr: Material TASK 2 – COMPARE • The north emerges from every statistical comparison [[that can be made]] as significantly poorer than the south • Whenever people compare statistics about the north and the south/, they find/ that the north is significantly poorer than the south Focus your attention on participant “The north” in both sentences. What kind of participant is it? Which is more congruent? Which is more metaphorical? Why? Whenever people compare statistics about Senser Pr: mental Phenomenon They find (that) Actor Pr. material The north is significantly poorer than the south Carrier Pr: relational: attributive Attribute N.B. 1 Congruency is often a question of more than one clause (while metaphorical representation often packages these into one). N.B. 2 The more metaphorical and packaged structure allows the writer to conceal the Senser, so that an opinion is more objectively presented as ‘emerging’ by itself. WHAT IS NOMINALISATION?  One of the main ways in which grammatical metaphor arises  The use of a nominal form to express a Process meaning TASK 3 – FIND NOMINALISATIONS • The north emerges from every statistical comparison [[that can be made]] as significantly poorer than the south • Whenever people compare statistics about the north and the south, they find that the north is significantly poorer than the south TASK 4 – RECOGNISING NOMINALISATION Find nominalisations in the following sentences. Re-phrase the sentences so that instances of nominalisation are replaced by Processes 1. This ambivalence towards literacy seems to be a strong element of contemporary culture 2. This world-wide expansion of English means that it is now one of the most widely spoken languages in the world TASK 4 – KEY EX. 1  This ambivalence towards literacy …  People are ambivalent towards literacy … The re-wording implies the introduction of a Process and an active, conscious participant. Nominalisation creates objectification TASK 4: KEY EX. 2  This world-wide expansion of English means that it is now one of the most widely spoken languages in the world  Since English has expanded world-wide, it is now spoken by the majority of people all over the world With nominalisation the Process meaning becomes a Thing (expansion) the meaning becomes non-negotiable, encapsulated and condensed NOMINALISATION If the Process is nominalised, this has an inevitable knock-on effect on other elements. When a Process is nominalised it is transformed into a thing; i.e. it is transformed into a meaning that CONGRUENT RELATION BETWEEN SPEECH FUNCTIONS AND MOOD TYPES (EGGINS 2004: 146-148) But a metaphorical relation can be Command: modulated interrogative (would you mind reading this letter for me?), declarative (I expect you to read the whole textbook before the exam); Statement: tagged declarative (The Inheritors is a novel by William Golding, isn’t it?); Question: modulated declarative (I was wondering whether Golding might be the author of The Inheritors). TASK 1 – DISCUSS 1. How could you do that to your little brother? (a parent to his/her child) Indicative: interrogative; + metaphorical - rhetorical question; speech function = Statement? (the speaker expresses surprise and strong disappointment); Command? (Don’t you ever do that again!). 2. Boys, it is noisy in here! (an English landlady to students who are renting rooms is her flat) Indicative: declarative; + metaphorical; speech function = Command (Turn down the volume!). 3. I would need more information to answer that question (a doctor to his/her patient). Indicative: declarative; + metaphorical; speech function = Question (e.g. Do you have other symptoms?). TRANSITIVITY The system of Transitivity is made up of Processes, Participants and Circumstances. The most important element is the Process, as it defines what is going on. Participants depends on and are named in relation to the processes. Circumstances are optional and define most notably time and place of the process, but also other meanings. METALANGUAGE: AN OVERVIEW OF THE TRANSITIVITY MODEL Processes Participants Material Actor / Goal Beneficiary Mental Senser / Phenomenon verbal Sayer / Target verbiage Relationa] Carrier / Attribute attr. Relationa] Identified / Identifier ident. Relational Possessor / Possessed poss. Behavioural Behaver Existential Ex1stent  Exercise 5 1. Wanted = Mental: Desiderative 2. Agreed = Verbal (in some other context it could be Mental, more precisely when the act of agreeing is not communicated through written or spoken language, but it remains at the level of thought (ex. A novel with the omniscent narrator reporting the thoughts of a character) 3. Asked = Verbal 4. Decided = Mental: cognitive 5. Answered = Verbal 6. Heard = Mental: perceptive 7. Liked = Mental: emotive 8. Replied = Verbal 9. Realised = Mental: cognitive 10. Repeated = Verbal When we analyse a process, we pick that part of the verb that has a lexical meaning. We leave out that part that has a grammatical meaning 1. Slithered = material 2. Used to have = Relational: attributive-possessive didn’t like = Mental 3. Worried = Mental: emotive 4. Horrified = Mental: emotive 5. Was = Relational: Attributive 6. Was = Relational: Identifying 7. Explained = Verbal 8. Noticed = Mental: Perceptive 9. Noted = Mental: Cognitive … become = Relational: Attributive 10. Wounded = it can be material (highlight the action) or behavioural (highlighting the change of state of the person wounded) FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE  Transitivity is concerned with the semantic structure of clauses and refers to who does what to whom, and in what kind of circumstances. An analysis of Transitivity therefore concerns actions in relation to participants  A Transitivity analysis aims at analysing the choice of types of Processes and participants involved  Certain process types are better used in certain text types  A Transitivity analysis aims at analysing the choice of types of Processes and participants involved  Transitivity is concerned with the semantic structure of clauses and refers to who does what to whom, and in what kind of circumstances. An analysis of Transitivity therefore concerns actions in relation to participants  Certain process types are better used in certain text types INSTRUCTIONAL/PROCEDURAL TEXT IN STANDARD ENGLISH TREAT YOUR MASK LIKE YOUR UNDERWEAR Don’t touch or pull at it especially in public Don’t borrow one from your mate or lend yours to them Make sure it is nice and tight but comfortable Make sure it is the right way round If it is stained or dirty, throw it in the bin If it is damp and mouldy, change it Don’t go commando! 1. What is/are the predominant process type/s in the text? Material and Relational 1. What process type/s is/are absent from the text Mental, Behavioural, Verbal and Existential When you write a procedural and/or instructional text, use whenever possible MATERIAL and RELATIONAL processes TRANSITIVITY AND TEXT-TYPES COMPARE THE FOLLOWING TEXTS: 1) I first laid all the planks or boards upon it […], I got three of the seamen’s chests, which I had broken open, and emptied, and lowered them down upon my raft (Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe) 2) In nine cases out of ten, a woman had better show more affection than she feels. […] he began to feel the danger of paying Elizabeth too much attention. […] Consider Mr Collins’s respectability, and Charlotte’s prudent, steady character […] she may well feel something like regard and esteem for our cousin (Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen) 3) A continuous rise in complexity towards Cambrian life was one of Darwin’s predictions (A Science book) 1. What is the predominant Process-type in text 1? 2. What is the predominant Process-type in text 2? 3. What is the (only) type of Process in text 3? 4. The most frequent Process in the text from Robinson Crusoe (also extremely frequent in the whole novel) is the material Process 5. The most frequent Process in the text from Pride and Prejudice (and arguably in the whole novel) is the mental Process Note: being an Actor is not sufficient to define the degree of dynamism, and the social role of a participant FOCUSING ATTENTION ON PROCESS AND PARTICIPANTS -ER AND –ED ROLES 1. Israeli attack kills 10 Palestinians in Gaza Israeli forces have killed at least ten Palestinians, most of them children, after firing on a crowd of demonstrators in Gaza Strip today 2. Rafah incident Today’s incident in Rafah is a very grave incident and the Israeli Foreign Office expresses deep sorrow over the loss of civilian lives  The author of article (1) makes use of material Processes. The Israeli army has the –er active role, while the Palestinians take on the –ed passive role. Israeli forces are construed as being powerful and aggressive, acting against weak and passive Palestinian victims  The author of article (2) uses two types of Process: a relational-attributive and a verbal. The text does not construct a narrative, it provides a description. The –er role of the verbal Process is the Israeli Foreign Office. Palestinians do not feature in either –er or –ed roles. THE CLINE OF DYNAMISM VERBAL GROUP COMPLEX – CAUSATIVE WHAT IS IT? When the verbal group is made up by the verb that expresses the event (= the Process) preceeded by another verb whose function is to modify the Process we have a Verbal Group Complex. From Eveline: She continued to sit by the window They seemed to have been rather happy She tried to weigh each side of the question From Pride and Prejudice: Wickham, who happened to sit near Elizabeth… To sit: This verb provides the realization of the Process Happened: Interpersonally this is the Finite (probe with question tag) and the primary verb in the VGC. VERBAL GROUP COMPLEXES AS CAUSATIVES Consider this example: I made my man Friday dig a little dock (from Robinson Crusoe) Here there are two active Participants. Name them. Which is the one who is in control, or has agency? CAUSATIVE The VGC has an explicit causative structure expressed by the verb make, or its variants. It introduces an additional Participant in the Transitivity structure: this is called INITIATOR. S/he/it is the Participant who brings about the action concretely performed by another Participant. CAUSATIVE WITH MATERIAL PROCESS I made my man Friday dig a little dock (Robinson Crusoe) This is an example of causative construction in which a Participant called Initiator-Agent brings about the action performed by the Actor. CAUSATIVE WITH RELATIONAL ATTRIBUTIVE PROCESSES This voyage made me both a sailor and a merchant (Robinson Crusoe) Causative constructions can also be found with relational Processes. In the case of attributive relational Processes, the Initiator-Agent is called Attributor because it causes the Carrier to have a quality (= Attribute) ascribed to him/ her/ it. CAUSATIVE WITH RELATIONAL IDENTIFYING PROCESSES He used to call her Poppens (Eveline) In the case of identifying relational Processes, the Initiator-Agent is called Assigner. The Assigner gives an identity to somebody or something - and this becomes the Participant that is Identified. chapter, that he is keeping fit and that he is worried about face-to face teaching at his university. He addressed me as «Dear Mokie» FOCUSING ON WRITERS Interpersonal meanings explore aspects of interaction also in writing. When we write we may decide to occupy different positions in relation to what we say (= proposition); we may endorse a proposition explicitly or implicitly, we may decide not to do so and take some distance, or we may decide to appear objective. We generally write alone but when we write we inevitably engage with other people’s opinions or writings, but we can do so in different degrees. TO SUM UP METALANGUAGE: POLARITY AND MODALITY Polarity is a choice between “yes” and “no”. But “yes” and “no” are not the only possibilities in exchanges. There are intermediate degrees, various kinds of indeterminacy that fall in-between. Examples are ‘sometimes’ and ‘maybe’. These intermediate degrees, between the positive and negative poles, are known collectively as modality. Modality: The grammatical system that is used by speakers and writers to make assessments from the point of view of probability, usuality, temporality, typicality, willingness, inclination, capacity and obligation PREPOSITION AND DEFINITION The content of a sentence. It does not pertain to interpersonal meanings but it is useful to know what it means as we will mention it frequently MOOD DEFINITION The mood is that part of the clause that includes Subject and Finite. As we will see it can also include Modal Adjuncts. PROJECTION DEFINITION In a sentence you can have a projecting and a projected clause. In the projecting clause you must have a mental or a verbal process. Only this process can project. Mental processes project thoughts, verbal processes project locutions. GRAMMATICAL RESOURCES TO EXPRESS MODALITY • Modal adjuncts • Modal operators • Multi-word expressions 12 ANGRY MEN (1957) • 12 Angry Men is an American courtroom drama film directed by Sidney Lumet . It tells the story of a jury of 12 men as they deliberate the conviction or acquittal of an 18-year old defendant on the basis of reasonable doubt. 12 Angry Men explores many techniques of consensus-building and the difficulties encountered in the process among this group of men. It also explores the power one person has to elicit change through language and for this reason it is interesting for this part of the course MODALITY TYPES Modalization (Epistemic modality) degrees of possibility or probability and usuality. Modulation (Deontic modality) degrees of obligation and inclination or willingness. Modal verbs and semi-modal verbs Lexical Resources It shall be lawful for His Majesty to appoint a Minister (hereinafter referred to as " the Minister "), whose duty it shall be to promote the education of the people of England and Wales and the progressive development of institutions devoted to that purpose, and to secure the effective execution by local authorities, under his control and direction, of the national policy for providing a varied and comprehensive educational service in every area. The Minister shall for all purposes be a corporation sole under the name of the Minister of Education, and the department of which he is in charge shall be known as the Ministry of Education. The Minister shall take the oath of allegiance and the official oath, and the Promissory Oaths Act, 1868, shall have effect as if the Minister of Education were named in the First Part of the Schedule to that Act While shall is quite uncommon in English as a modal of obligation, in regulatory texts,it is highly Favoured. In English, a single form may be used to express more than one type of modality. For example, both “must” and “may” have two distinct uses, which are often referred to as distinct senses: epistemic vs. deontic Before she [Lady Carlotta] had time to think what her next move might be, she was confronted by an imposingly attired lady, who seemed to be taking a prolonged mental inventory of her clothes and looks. “You must be Miss Hope, the governess I’ve come to meet,” said the apparition, in a tone that admitted of very little argument. “Very well, if I must I must,” said Lady Carlotta to herself with dangerous meekness. Note: most nouns after “entirely” are neutral or positive MODALITY THROUGH MULTI-WORD EXPRESSIONS Both modalization and modulation can be expressed not just through Modal Adjuncts and Modal Verbs but also through multi-word expressions. Modalization: «It is usual for» «It is likely that» Modulation: «It is necessary» «It is required that» «x is supposed to» «x is willing to» VALUE OF MODALITY Modality value concerns the extent to which a writer or speaker commits him/ herself to the validity of what s/he is writing/saying. This can be high, median or low. EXERCISE AND EXAMPLES ON TYPE AND VALUE OF MODALITY ORIENTATION OF MODALITY – ORIENTING SPEAKERS AND WRITERS METALANGUAGE SOURCE OF MODALITY : The speaker/ writer/ narrator or someone whose views are being reported. To identify the source of modality is important in all text types: literature, opinion articles science discourse, etc PROPOSITION: The content of a sentence PROJECTING AND PROJECTED CLAUSE : (SEE PREVIOUS PPT) FAQ: THE SOURCE OF MODALITY 1. How do writers/ speakers position or “orient” themselves in relation to a proposition? 2. How do writers/ speakers show that they accept responsibility for what they say/ write? 3. How do writers/ speakers indicate the strength of their own or others’ opinions? 4. How do writers/speakers show that they align to or disalign from others’ opinions? WHAT IS AN ANALYSIS OF THE SOURCE OF MODALITY FOR? The analysis of the source of modality and its orientation provides linguistic clues for understanding writers/speakers’ social roles, their attitudes towards their cultural context and the power relations they entertain with their audience in the communicative/ situational context. EXPLORE ORIENTATION IN 12 ANGRY MEN 1/3 All the jury agrees that the boy is guilty, all except one (Henry Fonda). We can say then that the jury is aligned with the exception of one. At the end of the scene, one member of the jury signals that because of the incident of the knife, he might change his mind. He says: «you know, it is interesting that he found a knife exactly like the one the boy bought» Q: How do the speaker position or “orient” themselves in relation to a proposition? A: The proposition is « he found a knife exactly like the one the bought». This is preceded by another clause that explicitly provides the speaker’s opinion in relation to the proposition «It is interesting» Q: How do writers/ speakers show that they accept responsibility for what they say/ write? A. The speaker thinks that the finding is interesting, but he is cautious; he does not say «I am interested in the fact that …..» but he says «It is interesting». By doing so he objectifies his interest and takes distance The reaction of the juror after the incident of the knife shows that this is a complex character: he is small, has a tiny voice, but he shows (maybe unexpectedly) that he is capable of questioning his own beliefs. At this point he is not ready to take a stand against the other characters (= disalign) and for this reason his expression of interest is objectified. He remains aligned with the majority of the jurors. AN EXAMPLE OF EXPLICIT OBJECTIVE ORIENTATION OF MODALITY «it is interesting that he found a knife exactly like the one the boy bought» POINT OF VIEW: EXPLICIT, IMPLICIT, NO POINT OF VIEW (APPARENTLY) Consider the following examples: 1. I think it is the same knife [Writer’s/speaker’s point of view is explicitly expressed (“I think”)] 2. It could be the same knife [Writer’s/speaker’s point of view is implicitly expressed by “could” (low value modalization)] 3. It is the same knife [No modality, no point of view; this statement looks like a fact, not a matter of opinion] EXERCISES ON ORIENTATION OF MODALITY ENGAGEMENT (Engage someone in) Involve someone in a conversation or discussion)  They attempted to engage Anthony in conversation;  We must engage them in discussions that involve their experiences, their questions and their standards.  I'd be happy to engage her in a discussion about the value of advertising. [no object] (engage in or be engaged in) Participate or become involved in  Each of the named individuals is a scientist who engages in research involving animals.  He has been actively engaged in an open exchange on what Indonesia is and should be. The Engagement System, like Orientation of Modality, is concerned with “resources for positioning the speaker’s or the author’s voice with respect to the various propositions or proposals conveyed by the text” (see White 2001: 1) Engagement functions rhetorically to construct relations of alignment or vice versa, disalignment, between the speaker/writer and the listener/reader. ENGAGEMENT is concerned with whether the author of an utterance excludes (=monoglossia) or admits (=heteroglossia) any external positions. Let us look at these examples: Engagement refers to notions of DIALOGISM or HETEROGLOSSIA that sees verbal communication as dialogic. To speak or to write is always to reveal the influence of, or refer to, what has been said/written before and simultaneously to anticipate the responses of actual or potential listeners/readers or VOICES. “How many points of view - or voices - are expressed?” “Does the speaker/writer encourage dialogue, confrontation of opinions and evaluation or does he/she discourage it?” “Does he/she open him/herself up to readers/listeners opinions or does he/she disregard them?” MONOGLOSS OR HETEROGLOSS? 1) The Earth goes around the sun 2) According to scientists, the Earth goes around the sun In example 1, the author utters a statement without any references to external sources, this is a monoglossic proposition. In example 2, the author refers to “scientists”, therefore, in this case we deal with heteroglossia. Heteroglossia is often used by an author to demonstrate that what he/she is saying does not belong to him/her, or to demonstrate that what he/she is saying is supported by other [reputable] people and, thus, deserves trust/consideration. TO ENGAGE OR NOT TO ENGAGE: HETEROGLOSS AND MONOGLOSS 1. Do you think it is nice? 2. It is a nice day, isn’t it? 3. Perhaps they will be on time 4. Mr. Brown believes it is too late 5. Those boys broke in the apartment 1. and 2. are questions. The preferred response for a question is an answer and therefore they demand that readers/listeners engage in the communicative act 3. the writer/speaker expresses the proposition as his/ her point of view (a tentative point of view), opening him/herself to other possible points of view. It is one voice inviting the participation of other voices in the communicative act, voices that can confirm or deny the writer’s proposition 4. The proposition “it is too late” belongs to an external voice to the writer. The textual voice therefore explicitly opens up to other voices. BUT No recognition of dialogic alternatives. What we hear is not an opinion. This is a bare description. A bare description does not invite, require or even welcome discussion. 1, 2, 3 and 4 are heteroglosses, 5 is a monogloss HETEROGLOSSIC ENGAGEMENT DIALOGIC CONTRACTION The space for dialogic alternatives is present; the textual voice engages with another voice. However, after opening up, the author closes this dialogic space down. In the example, the reporting verbs used are “show” and “demonstrate”. These introduce the following propositions as facts not as opinions. The introduction of these facts are meant to discourage alternative voices and to position Follain – whose voice the author engages with - as supreme authority Follain punctures the well-known myth that the mafia started as Robin Hood-style groups of men. He shows [[that the Mafia started as armed bands protecting the interests of the landlords]]. He also demonstrates how the mafia has forged links with Italy’s ruling Christian Democrats (Example taken from Martin and White 2005: 102) DIALOGIC EXPANSION The textual voice introduces other voices: Tickner’s and those of Aboriginal women. Differently from the previous example, the author does not close the dialogic space. The textual voice introduces the voice of Tickner and of Aboriginal women presenting their propositions as personal opinions (rather than facts) that can be debated. In this way he keeps the dialogue open to other possible opinions Tickner said the royal commission was a waste of money. His attack came as the Aboriginal women involved in the case claimed that they were not given full justice (Example taken from Martin and White 2005: 103) EVALUATION – MAIN FEATURES AFFECT It «is concerned with registering positive or negative feelings: do we feel happy, sad, confident or anxious, interested or bored» (Martin and White 2005: 42). It is a resource for enacting the emotional responses of participants to phenomena or people. Affect as a QUALITY attributed to a participant through: - Epithet (e.g. The happy Prince) - Circumstance of manner (e.g. The Prince sang happily) To make an evaluation, we need: An appraiser = the thing/person that makes the evaluation An appraisee = the thing/person that is evaluated Evaluations can be positive or negative All word classes can construe evaluation Evaluations can be implicit or explicit - Process: Behavioural (e.g. The Prince laughed) Affect as a COMMENT: - Modal Adjunct (e.g. Gingerly, in he came) JUDGEMENT Judjement is concerned with the institutionalization of feeling regarding the norms about how people should and shouldn’t behave (Martin and Rose 2003). It concerns evaluations appraisers make regarding character and behaviour of people. JUDGEMENT AND MODAL TYPES SOCIAL ESTEEM Normality & Usuality  e.g. He is usually calm Capacity & Ability  e.g. He can be calm Tenacity & Inclination  e.g. He is keen to start the course this semester SOCIAL SANCTION Ethics & Obligation  e.g. I must visit my granny at the hospital Veracity & Probability  e.g. This may be an honest report EXPRESSING JUDGEMENT - Classifiers  e.g. proper, fair - Things  e.g. integrity, bigotry, racism, terrorism - Processes  e.g. look after - Circumstances  rightly, wrongly, fairly AN EXAMPLE: AFFECT & JUDGEMENT I am disappointed [AFFECT] and ashamed [AFFECT] that two of our most admired and respected [JUDGEMENT] sportsmen could behave in such a manner. To play for your country is an honour and a privilege, not a right. Those who are chosen to represent Australia should not only be talented [JUDGEMENT] but they should be above reproach [JUDGEMENT]. Sport is supposed to teach honour, fair play, teamwork, leadership and social skills. It is not supposed to "create" or support greed and egos. Gambling is not what we want our children to be learning from their heroes and mentors. [JUDGEMENT] [The West Australian - 11/12/98: 12, letter to the editor, Jennifer Black, Riverdale] APPRECIATION APPRECIATION = the system of evaluation of products and processes. It encompasses values which fall under the general heading of aesthetics, as well as a non- aesthetic category of `social valuation' which includes meanings such as significant and harmful. While JUDGEMENT evaluates human behaviours, APPRECIATION evaluates natural objects, manufactured objects, texts as well as more abstract constructs such as plans and policies.