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Scarica linguistica inglese e e e e più Test d'ammissione in PDF di Linguistica Inglese solo su Docsity! Lingua e linguistica inglese (Boyd) Final Exam (2.5 ore) 7 September 2021 Choose at least two texts representing two different text typologies from below. They all have to deal with Covid-19 and vaccine (rights) in some way. TEXT 1: The Guardian view on global vaccine inequality: unwise as well as unethical Editorial The Guardian 25 August 2021 Richer countries must wake up and see the bigger Covid picture The statistics are stark and shaming. During an exasperated intervention earlier this week, the World Health Organization’s director general, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, pointed out that of 4.8bn Covid vaccine doses delivered around the world to date, around 75% have gone to just 10 countries. The level of vaccine donations from richer countries, he added with some understatement, has been “really disappointing”. In Africa, where a third wave of the virus has been on the march since May, less than 2% of the continent’s population has received a first dose. While high- income countries across the globe have administered around 100 doses for every 100 citizens, the equivalent figure for low-income countries is 1.5. As a consequence, while the United States, Britain and other richer nations begin to roll out programmes for booster shots in the autumn, a pandemic of the unvaccinated continues unabated elsewhere. The WHO’s target of reaching 10% of the population of every country with a first shot by the end of September is unlikely to be met. This grotesque inequity, as Dr Tedros and others have repeatedly pointed out, is ultimately in no one’s interest. Allowing much of the planet to operate as a variant factory, and the more transmissible Delta variant to run riot, stores up trouble for the future. “Vaccinating the world” should therefore be seen as sound strategy as well as an ethical obligation. But, in Europe and North America, early good intentions have so far come a distant second to domestic priorities. Governments with the means to do so have secured preferential deals for vaccines, over-ordered doses, hoarded them and restricted exports. Britain has played a leading role in opposing calls for intellectual property rights for vaccines to be temporarily waived. Overall, donations from richer countries have not remotely approached the level required. Covax, the vaccine-pooling scheme, has under-delivered, losing its major supply source after India’s decision to ban AstraZeneca exports. On the ground, insufficient time, effort and finance have been devoted to ensuring that the infrastructure is in place to carry out vaccination programmes efficiently, when doses are available. The likely result is that most people in low-income countries will be required to wait until 2023 to be vaccinated. This desperately slow rollout will cost the global economy $2.3tn in lost output, according to a study published today. The brunt of those losses will be borne by the unvaccinated poor. Perhaps more in hope than expectation, the WHO has called for a two-month moratorium on the administering of booster shots in wealthier nations. The politics of such a move would be fraught. But a way must be found to dramatically increase supply to those countries struggling to provide first and second jabs. As the IMF, the World Bank and the World Trade Organization have acknowledged by setting up a joint vaccine taskforce, the level of inequality is untenable. As successive waves of Covid-19 hit richer countries, domestic crisis management eclipsed all other considerations. But if the world is to emerge sustainably from the pandemic, a more strategic and equitable approach is desperately needed. TEXT 2: Covid Ravaged South America. Then Came a Sharp Drop in Infections. The New York Times, By Ernesto Londoño, Daniel Politi and Flávia Milhorance September 5, 2021 RIO DE JANEIRO — Just a few weeks ago, Covid-19 was spreading with alarming ease across a cluster of nations in South America, overwhelming hospital systems and killing thousands of people daily. Suddenly, the region that had been the epicenter of the pandemic is breathing a sigh of relief. New infections have fallen sharply in nearly every nation in South America as vaccination rates have ramped up. The reprieve has been so sharp and fast, even as the Delta variant wreaks havoc elsewhere in the world, that experts can’t quite explain it. Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Uruguay and Paraguay experienced dramatic surges of cases in the first months of the year, just as vaccines started to arrive in the region. Containment measures were uneven and largely lax because governments were desperate to jump-start languishing economies. “Now the situation has cooled across South America,” said Carla Domingues, an epidemiologist who ran Brazil’s immunization program until 2019. “It’s a phenomenon 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 we don’t know how to explain.” There have been no new sweeping or large-scale containment measures in the region, although some countries have imposed strict border controls. A major factor in the recent drop in cases, experts say, is the speed with which the region ultimately managed to vaccinate people. Governments in South America have generally not faced the kind of apathy, politicization and conspiracy theories around vaccines that left much of the United States vulnerable to the highly contagious Delta variant. In Brazil, which had a slow, chaotic vaccine rollout, nearly 64 percent of the population has received at least one dose of a vaccine, a rate that exceeds that of the United States. That led President Jair Bolsonaro, who had initially sowed doubts about vaccines, to brag last month. “Brazil has one of the best performances on vaccination globally,” he said in a Twitter post. In Chile and Uruguay, more than 70 percent of the population has been fully vaccinated. As cases have dropped, schools in much of the region have resumed in-person classes. Airports are becoming busier as more people have started traveling for work and leisure. The drop in caseloads led the United Nations this past week to provide a more optimistic projection of economic growth in the region. It now expects   economies in Latin America and the Caribbean to grow by 5.9 percent this year, a slight increase from its 5.2 estimate in July. “We’ve managed to delay major circulation of the Delta variant and move forward with the biggest vaccination campaign in our history,” Carla Vizzotti, Argentina’s health minister, said last week. In Argentina, more than 61 percent of the population has received at least one dose of a vaccine. Chrystina Barros, a health care expert at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, said she worries that falling caseloads will lead people to become complacent about wearing masks and avoiding crowds while the epidemic remains a threat. “There is a serious risk of putting the very effectiveness of the vaccine at risk,” she said. “The cooling of the pandemic cannot inspire people to relax in relation to the crisis.” Jairo Méndez Rico, a viral diseases expert advising the World Health Organization, said the Delta variant may have been slow to gain traction in South America because so many people in the region have natural immunity from having had the virus. But he said the variant could still lead to new surges. “It’s not easy to explain,” he said. “It’s too early to say what is happening.” Despite the uncertainty, governments in South America are moving to reopen borders in coming months. President Alberto Fernández of Argentina said in late July that the path to normalcy was in sight. “We deserve another life, a life in which we enjoy music, painting, sculptures, movies, theater,” he said. “A life in which we can laugh without a face mask, where we can hug those we love.” Jennifer Mac Donnell, a cosmetologist in Buenos Aires, is days away from a mid- September wedding — a milestone that has felt uncertain for much of the year. “We feared we were going to be forced to cancel it,” the 39-year-old said. “Now we’re much more calm, cases are down, most of our friends are vaccinated and everyone is just focused on having a good time.” TEXT 3: UK Supreme Court JUDGMENT The Financial Conduct Authority (Appellant) v Arch Insurance (UK) Ltd and others (Respondents) Hiscox Action Group (Appellant) v Arch Insurance (UK) Ltd and others (Respondents) Argenta Syndicate Management Ltd (Appellant) v The Financial Conduct Authority and others (Respondents) Royal & Sun Alliance Insurance Plc (Appellant) v The Financial Conduct Authority and others (Respondents) MS Amlin Underwriting Ltd (Appellant) v The Financial Conduct Authority and others (Respondents) Hiscox Insurance Company Ltd (Appellant) v The Financial Conduct Authority and others (Respondents) QBE UK Ltd (Appellant) v The Financial Conduct Authority and others (Respondents) Arch Insurance (UK) Ltd (Appellant) v The Financial Conduct Authority and others (Respondents) before Lord Reed, President Lord Hodge, Deputy President Lord Briggs Lord Hamblen Lord Leggatt JUDGMENT GIVEN ON 15 January 2021 Heard on 16, 17, 18 and 19 November 2020 LORD HAMBLEN AND LORD LEGGATT: (with whom Lord Reed agrees) I Introduction 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 vaccines concerned contain up to 400 components – and over 100 undertakings are involved in production.  That is why we have set up – under the leadership of Thierry Breton (our Internal Market Commissioner) – a taskforce whose job is to step up the industrial production of vaccines. The aim is to identify problems and to help to find solutions to them. Industry needs to keep up with science. Honourable Members, Indeed, industry has to match the ground-breaking pace of science. We fully understand that difficulties will arise in the mass production of vaccines. But Europe has invested billions of euros in capacities, in advance. And we urged the Member States to plan their vaccine roll-out. So now we all need predictability. And this is why we introduced the export transparency and authorisation mechanism. To be very clear: We do not intend to restrict companies that are honouring their contracts with the European Union. And there is an automatic exemption for exports to the EEA countries, for the Western Balkans and the rest of our neighbourhood, for humanitarian needs, and for the 92 low- and middle-income countries covered by COVAX. So Europe is always ready to help. But we insist on our fair share. And as far as the mechanism goes, allow me a word on the island of Ireland. The bottom line is that mistakes were made in the process leading up to the decision. And I deeply regret that. But in the end, we got it right. And I can reassure you that my Commission will do its utmost to protect the peace in Northern Ireland. Just as it has done throughout the entire Brexit process. Honourable Members, The battle against the virus is a marathon and not a sprint. It needs foresight, endurance and stamina. Almost every day we hear news of different variants and how contagious they are. We do not yet have the full picture when it comes to the effectiveness of treatments and vaccines on new strains. But we do know these variants will continue to emerge. And we do know that we need to anticipate and prepare immediately. This is why we start our new HERA (Health Emergency Response Authority) project now, by launching our preparedness agenda against new variants next week. […] Honourable Members, We all know that the information we have on the virus and the vaccines can change by the hour. This is why we will set up a contact group between the European Parliament and the Commission. And I will do my utmost to ensure that you are able to scrutinise all the contracts we have signed. Because I know that trust needs transparency. Honourable Members, We are all doing the best we can to fight the virus. In our families, in our towns, cities and communities, in the Member States and at European level. We should acknowledge the efforts that each one of us is making. We will overcome this challenge only if we stand together. Our common enemy is the virus. Long live Europe. Thank you! TEXT 5: Covid-19: Proof of Vaccination HANSARD Volume 812: debated on Monday 14 June 2021, UK Parliamentary Debate Asked by Lord Blunkett   To ask Her Majesty’s Government what facility they will make available as proof of vaccination for those wishing to travel who do not have a smart phone and access to the verification app. The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, Department of Health and Social Care (Lord Bethell) (Con) My Lords, since May, individuals in England who have had two doses of an approved Covid-19 vaccine have been able to demonstrate their vaccine status for international travel. The services can be accessed through digital and non-digital routes, via the NHS app and the NHS website or by calling 111 to request a letter. The devolved Administrations are making available similar letters for use in travelling overseas. Over 63,000 people have requested a letter since the service was launched. Lord Blunkett   (Lab) [V] I am very grateful to the Minister for his positive answer. Can he tell the House exactly how long it takes to get a printed letter as opposed to downloading the app, and how this will relate to the new electronic travel authorisation, which hopefully will coincide with lifting restrictions on British travellers here and abroad? Lord Bethell   (Con) My Lords, 57,000 people have received their letters so far. I am not aware of any delays. Those who wish to can use a pharmacy for the delivery of their letters. It is encouraging news and we have gone to considerable lengths to meet the suggestions of charities which we engaged with on the letters. They are available in different languages and in Braille. 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Lord Harris of Haringey   (Lab) My Lords, I refer to my interests in the register. It sounds as though what you really need is a secure card that proves your identity and has important information uploaded to it, such as your vaccination status—something my noble friend was introducing, only to have it scrapped by an incoming Conservative Government. We have had 10 wasted years. If there is to be a vaccination app or some other certification, can we be assured that it will not contain data that purports to show that holders are safe to travel because they have had a negative test under the absurd test and trace scheme? The BMJ has reported that the level of false negatives is of the order of 30%. Such negative tests have no probative value, despite the Government, according to the Public Accounts Committee, wasting £37 billion on them. Lord Bethell   (Con) My Lords, that is not our approach. Our approach is to try to use whatever technologies work in order to open up our borders. The idea that 30% of tests are not correct is an unhelpful suggestion by the noble Lord. We will be using testing in the validation app. Baroness Browning   (Con) [V] My Lords, I declare my interest as a vice-president of the National Autistic Society. My noble friend will be only too well aware that many on the autism spectrum are very IT-savvy. However, can he help those who would find it quite a challenge to phone 111? Is there any way the Government can communicate with the autism community, perhaps through the charitable sector and others, to make alternative arrangements other than just a phone call? Lord Bethell   (Con) My Lords, we have engaged considerably with the sector on exactly these kinds of matters. GPs and pharmacies are briefed to help those with difficulties get this material. We are also conscious that some with autism may struggle to take a test and find the process of swabbing intimidating, so we are looking into workarounds for that. Lord Scriven   (LD) My Lords, regardless of whether you hold a paper or digital record, personal health and data will be held on a central database. Can the Minister therefore inform us which government departments and private sector organisations will have access to the data on the central database? Lord Bethell   (Con) My Lords, vaccine data is held in the vaccine database and in the patient’s record. We abide by the principle that the data is owned by the patient. Lord Flight   (Con) My Lords, the Minister has really answered this question already, but may I add that it surely would be possible for vaccination units to have supplies of certificates that they could issue to people when they come to get their first or second vaccination? Lord Bethell   (Con) My noble friend alludes to having pre-printed certificates. In fact, each vaccine certificate has a tailored two-dimensional QR code that is designed for each person. Therefore, it is necessary to print the certificate for the person because it has their specific details on it. The Earl of Clancarty   (CB) My Lords, I am a little confused by what the Minister is saying. Is he saying that we are not going to get a proper Covid passport, as the EU will be offering from 1 July and Ireland from 19 July in both digital and physical options? Could he answer that in detail? Lord Bethell   (Con) My Lords, I apologise for not being clearer; I will be crystal clear right now. Today, you can have a digital certificate on your iPhone, you can have a digital certificate that is printed out from your computer or you can call a number and have a paper certificate sent to you in the post immediately. All of those options are live today. Baroness Thornton   (Lab) Disability campaigners are deeply concerned about the integration of health data into cultural participation and worry that the Government’s plans to set up the vaccine passport scheme could undermine the rights of disabled workers and audiences who cannot have the vaccine because of a health condition. What steps are the Government taking to ensure that any scheme that is introduced obeys the seven key inclusive principles, including complying with the Equality Act in making reasonable adjustments to ensure that disabled people do not face discrimination […] TEXT 6: The Covid-19 Vaccine and Human Rights: A short guide 1 April 2021, The British Institute of Human Rights On 8 December 2020, the Covid-19 vaccination roll-out started in the UK. As of 20 March 2021, over 27 million people have received their first dose. The Human Rights Act, the UK law, includes supporting people’s ability to make choices about their lives. This covers decisions about whether you want to agree to medical treatments, including having vaccines. The Human Rights Act also includes the right to not be discriminated against for a range of reasons, which include disability, and could also include vaccination status.   It is important for everyone to know what their human rights are when thinking about choices around vaccinations. Some people may have been assessed as not having capacity to choose to have or to refuse the vaccine. This could 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 include people with learning disabilities, Autistic people, people living with dementia or brain injuries, and/or people with mental health issues. Human rights law is important in helping make decisions about care and treatment, including vaccination. What is the vaccine? Covid-19 (often referred to as Covid, Corona, Coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2), is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered coronavirus (the name given to a group of similar illnesses). Whereas most people infected with Covid-19 experience mild to moderate flu like symptoms, there have been many deaths from this virus. There is an increased risk of death to people belonging to vulnerable groups, such as people with underlying health conditions. Covid-19 spread quickly globally and was declared a pandemic on 11 March 2020 by the World Health Organisation. As governments around the world have taken measure to combat the spread of the disease, scientists have worked on creating a new vaccine to eliminate and control Covid-19. There are now several different vaccines which all work in a similar way. We refer to them collectively as ‘the vaccine’ for ease. The vaccine can stop people getting very unwell from Covid-19 by helping the immune system to fight the virus without actually getting the illness. Like all medical treatments some people may have side effects from the vaccine and some people may not be able to take it for medical reasons. In the UK, the vaccine is available from the NHS and it is free. The vaccine is being offered to different groups of people at different times according to the priority list decided by the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation. Which human rights are relevant when making choices around vaccines? The Human Rights Act sets out 16 rights that every person in the UK has, and the legal duties on public bodies to uphold these rights. You can read all about the Human Rights Act in our new Easy Read Guide to the Human Rights Act. The legal duty to uphold human rights applies in healthcare settings, this is because the NHS is a public body. This duty also applies to private groups or charities delivering NHS services. Staff working in these settings, have legal duties to respect, protect and fulfil human rights. This legal duty applies to the planning and delivery of vaccines. This guide covers the rights of people accessing healthcare services with regards to the vaccine. It is important to also note that staff working within healthcare settings have the same human rights, and these also need to be respected, protected and fulfilled. You can find out more about the human rights of staff in our short guide to the Covid-19 vaccine and human rights for staff working in public bodies. There are several legally protected rights involved when considering people’s choices around taking the vaccine. Some of these are listed below.  The right to life (Article 2 HRA): Here we cover issues including the duty to protect life and failures to protect life.  The right to be free from inhuman or degrading treatment (Article 3 HRA): Here we cover issues including serious mental or physical harm and restraint.   Right to liberty (Article 5 HRA): Here we cover issues including mental health, mental capacity and restraint.   Right to private and family life, home and correspondence (Article 8 HRA): Here we cover issues including autonomy, wellbeing and “vaccine passports”.   Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Article 9): Here we cover issues including the right to hold and act on strongly held beliefs.  The right to be free from discrimination (Article 14 HRA): Here we cover issues including groups of people being treated differently. The right to life (Article 2 HRA) This means that public officials cannot deliberately take your life and includes a duty to take proactive, reasonable steps to protect life. This positive duty to take steps applies when official know (or ought to have known) that your life is at serious and immediate risk. When governments and public bodies make decisions on public health where is a large risk to life issue, such as the administration of the vaccine, they must think about protecting the right to life. The right to life is what we call an absolute human right, meaning that the government (and public bodies and services, e.g., NHS or public health services) must protect this right. As an absolute right, the right to life cannot be lawfully restricted, including by healthcare staff (there are some very specific circumstances where actions resulting on loss of life by a government official will not breach the right to life, but these are limited to criminal justice or security areas) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58