Londra e la corte della Restaurazione: l'influenza francese e l'età augustea, Schemi e mappe concettuali di Inglese

Scarica Londra e la corte della Restaurazione: l'influenza francese e l'età augustea e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Inglese solo su Docsity! LONDON AND THE COURT THE RESTORATION: THE FRENCH INFLUENCE THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE PURITAN COMMONWEALTH AND THE RESTORED STUART MONARCHY WAS VERY SHARP. THE STUARTS HAD IMPORTED FROM FRANCE THE FRENCH TASTES IN FASHION AND MANNERS. THEY RE-OPENED THE THEATERS AND SHOWED A LIBERTINE ATTITUDE AND DEDICATED THEIR LIVES TO PLEASURE. CHARLES II NICKNAME WAS “THE MERRY MONARCH”. THE REBUILDING OF LONDON THE REBUILDING OF LONDON AFTER THE GREAT FIRE WAS THE BEGINNING OF MODERN LONDON. LONDON BECAME THE CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CENTRE OF THE COUNTRY. THE ENGLISH BAROQUE ARCHITECT SIR WREN REBUILT MANY SECULAR BUILDINGS AND CHURCHES INCLUDING SAINT PAUL’S CATHEDRAL. SCIENCE AND THE ROYAL SOCIETY DURING THE RESTORATION, THERE WAS THE DIFFUSION OF SCIENCE. THE ROYAL SOCIETY WAS FOUNDED IN 1660 AND ITS MEMBERS WERE FAMOUS PERSONS LIKE ISAAC NEWTON, JONATHAN SWIFT AND JOHN LOCKE. THE AUGUSTAN AGE THE TERM “AUGUSTAN” THE FIRST HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY IS CALLED THE “AUGUSTAN AGE”. IT WAS CARACTERIZED BY A CLASSICAL OUTLOOK MODELLED ON THE ANCIENT ROME UNDER THE EMPEROR AUGUSTUS. THE OLD ROMAN VIRTUES LIKE FORTITUDE, PERSEVERANCE AND SELF-CONTROL WERE CONSIDERED THE VIRUES OF THE BRITISH GENTLEMAN. NEOCLASSICISM BECAME A WAY OF LIFE IN LITERATURE, POETRY, ARCHITECTURE, SCULPURE, PAINTING GARDENING AND SO ON. THE AUGUSTAN ARTISTS WERE CRITICAL OF THE BAD TASTE OF THE NEW MIDDLE CLASS AND OF THE CORRUPTION OF THE ARISTOCRACY. THEY USED SATIRE TO ATTACK THEM. RATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES THE EMPIRISM STARTED BY LOCKE BECAME SCEPTICISM BY HUME. THE DEISTS WERE A GRUOPU OF THINKERS WHO BELIEVED IN NATURAL RELIGION AND IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF BERKELEY WHO COMBINED RELIGIOUS FAITH WITH REASON. THE ROLE OF WOMAN UPPER-CLASS WOMEN ACHIEVED A MORE CENTRAL ROLE. THEIR LITERARY SALONS WERE IMPORTANT MEETING PLACES WHERE IDEAS, LITERATURE AND POLITICS WERE DISCUSSED. THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS THE MIDDLE CLASS AND THE ARISTOCRACY AFTER THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION, THE MIDDLE CLASS GREW ITS POWER. RICH TRADESMEN AND MANUFACTURERS BOUGHT ESTATES AND SO ENTERED PARLIAMENT. THE INTERESTS OF ARISTOCRACY AND MIDDLE CLASS WERE THE SAME AND THEY JOINED FORCES IN COMMERCIAL, AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL VENTURES. MIDDLE-CLASS VALUES THE MARRIAGE OF THE 2 CLASSES MADE A CHANGE IN SOCIAL VALUES. THE MIDDLE CLASS LEARNT GOOD MANNERS FROM ARISTOCRACY AND ARISTOCRACY WAS MODIFIED BY MIDDLE CLASS VALUES: MORALITY, BELIEF IN WORK, IMPORTANCE OF THE FAMILY. NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, CLUBS AND COFFEEHOUSES WERE IMPORTANT FOR THE MIDDLE CLASS TO IMPROVE THEIR CULTURE. THERE WAS A CONNECTION BETWEEN MAGAZINES AND COFFEEHOUSES BECAUSE MANY ARTICLES IN THE MAGAZINES “THE TATLER” AND “THE SPECATOR” WERE WRITTEN IN FAMOUS COFFEHOUSES. THE FIRST ENGLISH DICTIONARY IN THE 18TH CENTURY MANY PEOPLE FELT THAT IT WAS NECESSARY TO ESTABLISH A STANDARD ENGLISH LANGUAGE. THE MODELS WERE THE CYCLOPAEDIA BY CHAMBER AND THE ENCYCLOPEDIE BY DIDEROT AND D’ALAMBERT. IN 1746 SAMUEL JOHNSON, A FAMOUS WRITER, COMPILED A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE WHICH WAS PUBLISHED IN 1755. IT CONTAINED 43.000 WORDS WITH QUOTATIONS AND ETIMOLOGY. THE RISE OF THE NOVEL THE NEED FOR REALISM THE 18TH CENTURY NOVEL IS CARACTERIZED BY THE NEED FOR REALISM. NOVELS DEALS WITH ORDINARY PEOPLE AND CONTEMPORARY OBJECTS, LANGUAGE AND SITUATIONS. THE LANGUAGE IS PLAIN, FACTUAL, SIMILAR TO NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES. THE NOVEL’S MAIN FEATURES ARE:  A GREAT STRESS ON CONTEMPORARY REALITY  CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE OF EVENTS  ABUNDANCE OF REALISTIC DETAILS  THE NOVELTY OF THE STORIES THE NOVEL AND THE MIDDLE CLASS THE READERS OF NOVELS BELONGED TO THE COMMERCIAL AND MERCANTILE MIDDLE CLASS. NOVELS HAD TO SATISFY THE NEEDS OF THE MIDDLE CLASS WHICH WANTED ORIGINAL STORIES WITH ORDINARY EXPERENCIES. CHARACTERS BELONGED TO THE MIDDLE CLASS FOR EXAMPLE DANIEL DEFOE’S ROBINSON CRUSOE IS A MIDDLE CLASS HERO, FULL OF ENTERPRISE AND COMMERCIAL WISDOM. THE NOVELS REFLECTED ALSO THE FAITH IN GOD’S FAVOUR WHICH WAS A BELIEF OF THE PURITAN MIDDLE CLASS. NOVELS WERE FULL OF MIDDLE CLASS VALUES: TEMPERANCE, ECONOMY, SOBRIETY AND MODESTY. WOMEN WERE OFTEN THE HEROINES OF THE NOVELS. TIME AND PLACE THE REALISM OF THE NOVELS IS REPRESENTED BY 2 ELEMENTS: TIME AND PLACE. IN DANIEL DEFOE’S “ROBINSON CRUSOE” THE PROTAGONIST RECORDS HIS EXPERIENCES ON A DIARY. THE PASSING OF TIME GIVES REALISM TO AN IMPROBABLE STORY. DEFOE CONSIDERS SPACE AS A GEOGRAPHICAL ENTITY AND HE GIVES LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF PLACES, NAMES OF REAL SEAS, SHIPS AND HARBOURS. UTOPIAN FICTION UTOPIAN FICTION WAS INFLUENZED BY REALISM. “GULLIVER’S TRAVELS” BY JONATHAN SWIFT BELONGS TO UTOPIAN FICTION. IT SHOWS IMAGINARY WORLDS PRESENTED AS A COUNTERPART TO IMPERFECT SOCIETIES. GULLIVER’S TRAVELS ARE FANTASTIC BUT INCLUDE REAL GEOGRAPHY LIKE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF PLACES, NAMES OF SEAS, OCEANS AND COUNTIRES. THE EPISTOLARY NOVEL EPISTOLARY NOVELS WERE VERY POPULAR IN THE 18TH CENTURY. SAMUEL RICHARDSON’ “PAMELA” IS AN EPISTOLARY NOVEL. IT IS AN EXCHANGE OF LETTERS BETWEEN SEVERAL PERSONS SO THERE IS A MULTIPLE POINT OF VIEW. THE AUTHOR USES LETTERS AS A MEAN OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS. HE ALSO DESCRIBES THE SPACE WITH GREAT PRECISION: THE FURNITURE, THE CLOTHES AND SO ON. THE PICARESQUE NOVEL THE PICARESQUE NOVEL WAS VERY POPULAR IN THE 18TH CENTURY. IT DEALS WITH THE ADVENTURES OF A YOUNG HERO ON THE ROAD, IN WHICH HE MEETS DIFFERENT KIND OF PEOPLE. THE BEST WRITER OF THE PERIOD WAS HENRY FIELDING WITH THE BOOK “TOM JONES”. THE STORY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO 3 PARTS: IT BEGINS IN THE COUNTRYSIDE, CONTINUES ON THE ROAD AND FINISHES IN LONDON. TOM’S ADVENTURES ARE A PROCESS OF GROWING UP IN FACT AT THE END OF THE STORY TOM BECOMES A RESPONSIBLE AND RELIABLE YOUNG MAN. THE AUTHOR CELEBRATES THE ARISTOCRATIC AND CHRISTIAN VIRTUES: COURAGE, GENEROSITY AND BENEVOLENCE. THE SENTIMENTAL NOVEL THE SENTIMENTAL NOVEL WAS POPULAR IN THE 18TH CENTURY. “A SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY” BY STERN IS HALF TRAVEL DIARY AND HALF SENTIMENTALIZED AUTOBIOGRAPHY. “TRISTAN SHANDY” IS AN UNUSUAL NOVEL WITH NO TIME SCHEME AND PLOT. THE STORY IS NARRATED BY THE PROTAGONIST WITH A LONG SEQUENCE OF DIGRESSIONS AND FLASHBACKS. MODER MYTHS: ROBINSON THE MYTH OF THE NATURAL MAN DURING THE 18TH CENTURY 2 MYTHS EMERGED: THE MYTH OF THE MACHINE AND THE MYTH OF THE PERFECTION OF NATURE. MANY PHILOSOPHERS AND SCIENTISTS SAW THE UNIVERSE AS A LIVING ORGANISM. THE PHILOSOPHERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT CONSIDERED NATURE A DYNAMIC ENTITY AND BELIEVED IN THE INTERACTION BETWEEN NATURE AND MEN. THE MYTH OF THE GOOD NATURAL MAN WAS THE CENTRE OF THE RETURN TO A NATURAL SOCIETY. ROUSSEAU’S READING OF ROBINSON CRUSOE ROUSSEAU’S PHILOSOPHY WAS BASED ON THE CONCEPT OF MAN AND NATURE. HE BELIEVED THAT EDUCATION SHOULD STIMULATE THE NATURAL INTERESTS OF THE CHILD AND SAID THAT “ROBINSON CRUSOE” WAS AN IMPORTANT BOOK IN A CHILD’S EDUCATION BECAUSE IT SHOWS TO SATISFY ONLY NATURAL NECESSITIES AND ROBINSON REPRESENTS COMPLETE INDIVIDUALISM. MODERN READING OF ROBINSON CRUSOE MODERN READERS HAS POINTED OUT THAT DEFOE AND ROUSSEAU HAD VERY DIFFERENT IDEAS ABOUT NATURE. IN FACT ROBINSON IS FORCED TO LIVE ON A DESERT ISLAND AND HE ONLY WANTS TO LEAVE. MOREOVER DEFOE CONSIDERED NATURE A RESOURCE TO BE EXPLOITED ECONOMICALLY. JONATHAN SWIFT LIFE IN IRELAND AND ENGLAND JONATHAN SWIFT WAS BORN IN IRELAND IN 1667. HIS PARENTS WERE ENGLISH. HE BECAME A PRIEST AND LEFT IRELAND FOR ENGLAND. HE LIVED IN THE HOUSE OF SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE FOR 10 YERAS AND MET HIS FRIENDS. SWIFT BECAME ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT WRITERS OF THE AUGUSTAN AGE. HE WROTE SATIRICAL WORKS ABOUT POLITICAL CORRUPTION. IN IRELAND HE BECAME A NATIONAL HERO FOR HIS PAMPHLETS IN DEFENCE OF THE IRISH. HE SPENT THE FINAL PART OF HIS LIFE WITH MENTAL DESEASE TILL HE DIED IN 1745. THE BRILLIANT SATIRIST SWIFT WAS A BRILLIANT SATIRIST. HIS FIRST PAMPHLET “THE BATTLE OF THE BOOKS” IS ABOUT THE BATTLE BETWEEN THE BOOKS WRITTEN BY THE ANCIENTS AND THE BOOKS WRITTEN BY THE MODERNS. “A TALE OF TUB” IS A SATIRE ON CORRUPTION IN RELIGION AND LEARNING. HIS MOST FAMOUS PAMPHLETS ARE SATIRES ON THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SITUATION OF IRELAND: “THE DRAPIER’S LETTERS”, “A MODEST PROPOSAL”. HIS MOST FAMOUS WORK IS “GULLIVER’S TRAVELS” IN WHICH HE MIXED UTOPIAN FICTION AND TRAVEL WRITING IN A NOVEL. THE BOOK IS ABOUT THE FANTASTIC VOYAGES OF SURGEON LEMUEL GULLIVER AND IS A SATIRE ON MAN AND A TRAVEL BOOK. IT WAS PUBLISHED ANONYMOUSLY. GULLIVER’S TRAVEL A TRAVEL STORY GULLIVER’S TRAVEL IS A NOVEL IN 4 BOOKS. IT IS A TRAVEL STORY BECAUSE THE PROTAGONIST AND NARRATOR, LEMUEL GULLIVER, IS A SHIP’S SURGEON WHO MAKES A LOT OF VOYAGES INTO REMOTE REGIONS OF THE WORLD. THE LANDS OF THE STORY ARE IMAGINARY BUT SWIFT MAKES THEM REAL. HE MIXES THE FANTASTIC AND THE REAL: THE IMAGINARY LANDS ARE PLACED INTO REAL OCEANS OR CONTINENTS AND HE DESCRIBES CAREFULLY THE NAMES OF THE SHIPS, OF THE CAPTAINS, THE LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. GREAT SATIRE SWIFT CRITICIZES THE SOCIETY THROUGH HIS SHARP SATIRE. THE BOOK BELONGS TO THE UTOPIAN NARRATIVE IN FACT THE STORY IS SET IN FARAWAYS ISLANDS WITH STRANGE RACES: LITTLE PEOPLE, GIANTS, SPEAKING HORSES. THE POPULATIONS ARE MORE CIVILIZED OR REFLECTS OUR DEFECTS. UTOPIA VS REALITY  IN THE FIRST BOOK THE LILLIPUTIANS REPRESENT THE MEANNESS AND PETTINESS OF OUR WORLD. THEY ARE CRUEL AND NEED POWER.  IN THE SECOND BOOK THE GIANTS REPRESENT THE PHYSICAL IMPERFECTIONS OF MAN. THEY ARE WISE AND GOOD.  IN THE THIRD BOOK, THE VOYAGE TO LAPUTA, SWIFT CRITICIZES MODERN PHILOSOPHIES AND SCIENCE.  IN THE FOURTH BOOK, GULLIVER FACES THE DEGRADED HUMANITY OF THE YAHOOS WHO LOOKS LIKE APES AND THE SUPERIOR INTELLIGENCE OF THE WISE HORSES. SWIFT’S PESSIMISM SWIFT’S PESSIMISM IS REPRESENTED BY GULLIVER WHO ALIENATES HIMSELF FROM HUMANITY BECAUSE HE IS DISGUSTED BY MEN. SWIFT’ NOVEL HAS BEEN CONSIDERED A CHILDRE’S STORY, A PHILOSOPHICAL TALE, AN EXTENDED METAPHOR. FIRST-PERSON NARRATOR SWIFT USES THE FIRST-PERSON NARRATOR. THE STORY IS TOLD BY THE PROTAGONIST, LEMUEL GULLIVER. HE TELLS US WHAT IS HAPPENING AND HIS POINT OF VIEW IS ALWAYS PRESENT. THIS KIND OF STORIES IS LIKE A DIARY OR AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY. THE STORY  THE FIRST VOYAGE: GULLIVER IS SHIPWRECKED IN THE LAND OF LILLIPUT. THE INHABITANTS ARE AS SMALL AS INSECTS. AT FIRST GULLIVER IS IMPRISONED BY THEM, THEN THEY USE HIM IN THE WAR AGAINST A NEAR COUNTRY. AT THE END HE LEAVES THE COUNTRY ON A BOAT.  THE SECOND VOYAGE: GULLIVER ARRIVES IN THE LAND OF BROBDINGNAG. THE INHABITANTS ARE GIANTS. HE IS USED AS A TOY AND HE IS ATTACKED BY RATS. THE GIANTS ARE A CIVILIZED POPULATION. HE LEAVES THE COUNTRY BECAUSE HIS HOUSE-BOX IS TAKEN BY AN EAGLE. THEN HE IS SAVED BY A SHIP.  THE THIRD VOYAGE: GULLIVER ARRIVES IN THE LAND OF LAPUTA, A FLYING ISLAND. THE INHABITANTS DON’T CARE ABOUT PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS BECAUSE THEY ARE SCIENTISTS. THEY ARE TOTALLY OUT OF REALITY.  THE FOURTH VOYAGE: GULLIVER ARRIVES IN THE LAND OF THE INTELLIGENT HORSES AND OF THE YAHOOS, MONSTROUS CREATURES SIMILAR TO APES. GULLIVER DECIDES TO STAY WITH THE HORSES BUT THEY DONT’ WANT HIM BECAUSE THEY THINK HE IS A YAHOOS. EXTRACT: GULLIVER VISITS THE GRAND ACADEMY OF LAGADO (PAG.266-267) IN THIS EXTRACT, GULLIVER IS IN THE LAND OF LAGADO. HE VISITS THE ACADEMY OF LAGADO WHERE THE INHABITANTS MAKES A LOT OF STRANGE EXPERIMENTS. IN THE SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES, THEY SUBSTITUTE THINGS FOR WORDS. IN THE SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS, THEY LEARN FORMULAE BY WRITING THEM ON A WAFER AND EATING IT.