Scarica Mastering advanced english language - Sara Thorne e più Appunti in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! MASTERING ADVANCED ENGLISH LANGUAGE SARA THORNE PART I – Reference – the structure of English. 1 – The structure of English. What is grammar? Is the study of the organization of language. Language is divided into different levels. Within each of these levels there are certain rules and patterns describing how the elements can be combined. Language is said to have a RANK SCALE because the levels can be arranged hierarchically. Open class words: Closed class words: (LEXICAL WORDS) have a clearly definable meaning. (nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) (GRAMMATICAL WORDS) they enable us to build up language grammatically. (pronouns, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions) OPEN CLASS WORDS: NOUNS: (NAMING WORDS) They name people, places, things. • COMMON NOUNS: Classify things into types or general categories (car, dog…). • PROPER NOUNS: Refer to specific people and places (usually written with initial capital letter). • CONCRETE NOUNS: Refer to physical things that can be observed and measured. • ABSTRACT NOUNS: Refer to ideas, times, qualities, emotions; they cannot be touched or seen. • COUNT NOUNS: Can be counted and have plural form. • NON-COUNT NOUNS: Refer to substances and qualities that cannot be counted. *Some nouns are both count and non-count. PLURALS: Regular nouns add –s to mark it. Many noun, however, are irregular. • COLLECTIVE NOUNS: Refer to groups of people, animals and things. POSSESSIVES: In written language ‘s or ‘ is added to the noun to mark possession. ADJECTIVES: (DESCRIBING WORDS) Provide extra information about nouns by giving details of physical qualities and of psychological qualities (emotions). • ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES: Before a noun. • PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVES: After COPULA VERBS or LINKING VERBS. *Adjectives can be graded so that nouns can be compared. *Sometimes words from other word classes do the job of an adjective (i.e.: running boy, garden wall). A noun describing a noun is called MODIFIER. VERBS: (DOING WORDS) Can express actions and states. • STATIVE VERBS: Express states of being or the processes in which there is no obvious action ( to know, to believe). • DYNAMIC VERBS: Express a wide range of actions which can be physical or perceptual. • TRANSITIVE VERBS: Have to be followed by an object to complete their meaning. • INTRANSITIVE VERBS: Do not need to be followed by an object to make sense. • REGULAR VERBS: Have four forms: 1. INFINITE to walk 2. THIRD PERSON SINGULAR PRESENT walks 3. PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE walked 4. PRESENT PARTICIPLE walking • IRREGULAR VERBS: Have often five forms: USAGES OF THE PASSIVE: 1. Using by + actor , the subject can be delayed to the end of the sentence creating suspence. 2. if the actor is a long phrase that seems awkward at the start of the sentence, it can be placed at the end for fluency. 3. by omitting the by + actor , it is possible to exclude the person or thing responsible for the action of the verb. • FINITE VERBS: Change their form to show contrast of number, tense and person. • NON-FINITE VERBS: Never change their form. ADVERBS: Are modifying words. They give information about time, place, and manner and can express a speaker’s attitude to or evaluation of what is being said. They can modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, sentences. • CIRCUMSTANCE ADVERBS: (ADJUNCTS) Modify verbs, by giving details of circumstances like manner, time, frequency and place. • DEGREE ADVERBS (MODIFIERS): Modify adjectives or adverbs. • SENTENCE ADVERBS: modify a whole sentence. 1. DISJUNCT: Express speakers’ or writers’ attitudes allowing them to comment on what is being said or written. 2. CONJUNCT: Can be used to link sentences. FORMING ADVERBS: Many adverbs are formed by adding –ly to adjectives. • COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE: Although some can take – er and –est endings ,most require the use of more and most. • IRREGULAR ADVERBS: Have different forms. THREE MAIN POSITIONS FOR ADVERBS: 1. In front of the sentence. 2. The middle of the sentence: after the first auxiliary, after the verb to be as a lexical verb, or before the lexical verb. 3. The end of the sentence. Sometimes the same word can be both an adjective and an adverb. In order to distinguish between them, it is important to look at the context of the word and its function in a sentence. CLOSED CLASS WORDS: PRONOUNS: Are used instead of nouns, noun phrases or noun clauses. There are seven types of pronouns: 1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS: • SUBJECT PRONOUNS: Are used when it is clear who the actor of the sentence is (I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they). • OBJECT PRONOUNS: It replaces the noun that receives the action of the verb (me, you, him/her/it, us, you, them). 2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: Are used when you need to show possession of something (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, yours, theirs). 3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS: Are used when the same person is the actor and the receiver of the action in a sentence (myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves). 4. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: Are used to point to the relationship between the speaker and a person or a thing (this/ these, that/those). 5. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS: Are used to ask questions. There are five types: what, which, who, whom, whose. 6. RELATIVE PRONOUNS: Follow directly the nouns they describe. They introduce relative clauses, although sometimes the pronoun itself is omitted. There are five forms: that, which, who, whom, whose. 7. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS: Have a less certain reference point than the other pronouns listed here. There are two types: • OF PRONOUNCES: All of, both of, each of…always followed by an object pronoun. • COMPOUND PRONOUNS: Every/some/any/no + thing/one/ body. DETERMINERS: Precede nouns. There are five main types: 1. ARTICLES: DEFINITE or INDEFINITE. The former specifies something particular, while the latter does not. 2. POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS: Are used to suggest the ownership of a noun. There are seven forms: my, your, his, her, its, our, their. 3. DEMONSTRATIVE DETERMINERS: Express a contrast, establishing either a close or a more distant relationship. 4. INDEFINITE DETERMINERS: Convey a range of meaning. The most common ones are: all, some, any, no; every, each, either, neither, one, another etc… 5. NUMBERS: If precede a noun they are functioning as determiners. Both cardinals and ordinals can be used as determiners. It is important to look closely at the context to distinguish between pronouns and determiners. A determiner precedes a noun; a pronoun replaces a noun, noun-phrase or noun clause. PREPOSITIONS: Describe relationships that exist between elements in sentences. They convey the following relationships: • PLACE: at, on, by, opposite • DIRECTION: towards, past, out of, through • TIME: at, before, in, on • COMPARISON: as…as, like • SOURCE: from, out • PURPOSE: for CONJUNCTIONS: Are joining words • CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: (and, but, or, neither…nor, either…or)Link lexical units of equal value. • SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS: Join a subordinate clause to a main clause. They often give information on when, where, why, how or if an action takes place. MORPHOLOGY • LEXICAL VERBS AS HEADWORD: A verb phrase may consist of one lexical verb as a headword. • AUXILIARY VERBS: A verb phrase may have up to four auxiliary verbs, the lexical verb will always be the last element in a verb phrase. • PHRASAL VERBS: Phrases made up of a verb and an adverb. Many phrasal verbs can stand alone. • PREPOSITIONAL VERBS: Made up of a verb and a preposition or particle. They cannot stand alone: they must be followed by a noun phrase. Are common in informal speech and writing. • PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: Has a preposition as its main word. It will normally be followed by a noun phrase. Prepositional phrases add extra information and are therefore optional: the can be omitted without affecting the meaning. They can have the following characteristics: 1. POST-MODIFICATION of other phrases. 2. ADVERBIALS: Prepositional phrases can function as adverbials providing informations about time, manner and place. ADVERB PHRASES: Has an adverb as its main word. • ADVERBS AS HEADWORD • EXTRA INFORMATION: If omitted, will still make sense. • ADVERBIALS: Provide information about time, manner and place. CLAUSES CLAUSES: Are the main structures used to compose sentences. A sentence will be made up of at least one main clause (a clause that make sense of its own and that is not dependent on or part of another clause); it may also contain one or more subordinate clauses. Clauses may be: • FINITE: Contains a verb marked for tense, number and person. • NON-FINITE: Contains a present participle, a past participle or an infinitive. • VERBLESS CLAUSE ELEMENTS: Five types with different function and site. 1. SUBJECT: Describes the person who or thing which does the action of the verb (actor of the sentence). It is usually a noun phrase or a pronoun, but it can also be a clause. • POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: Precede the verb in a statement. • POSITION IN A QUESTION: Follows the auxiliary verb. • EFFECT ON THE VERB: Dictates the form. • EFFECT ON THE OBJECT OR COMPLEMENT: Sometimes control their form. 2. VERB: Express a range of meanings (actions, processes, states…). It’s the most important clause element and it cannot be omitted. 3. OBJECT: Describes something that is directly affected by the verb. • INDIRECT OBJECT: Something indirectly affected by the verb. It can precede or follow the direct object. • KINDS OF OBJECT: It is a noun phrase or a pronoun. • POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: It follows the verb. 4. COMPLEMENT: Gives extra information about the subject or the object. • KINDS OF COMPLEMENT: Adjective phrase, noun phrase, pronoun, a numeral or a clause. • POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: Follows a verb. 5. ADVERBIALS: Give information about time, manner and place. • KINDS OF ADVERBIALS: Adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, noun phrases or clauses. • NUMBER OF ADVERBIALS: More than one can be added to a clause. • POSITION IN THE CLAUSE: Can change to create different kinds of emphasis. CLAUSE STRUCTURE: Most clauses will have a subject and a verb, other clause elements are optional. It is useful to distinguish between the form of a verb and the function of a verb phrase in a clause. In clause analysis, linguists call the verb site the predicator. CLAUSE TYPES: Seven types: 1. subject + verb 2. subject + verb + direct object 3. subject + verb + indirect object + direct object 4. subject + verb + subject complement 5. subject + verb + direct object + object complement 6. subject + verb + adverbial 7. subject + verb + direct object + adverbial SENTENCES SENTENCE: Is a grammatical construction that makes sense on its own. In writing, it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop or an exclamation or question mark. SIMPLE SENTENCE: Contains just one clause. It has only one finite verb and is described as a main clause. COMPOUND SENTENCE: Contains two or more simple sentences linked by coordinating conjunctions. Each clause in compound sentence carries equal weight and makes sense on its own – they can therefore both be described as main clauses. When two sentences are linked, it is usually better to avoid repetition. This can be achieved by using substitution or ellipsis. • SUBSTITUTION: A pronoun replaces a noun or a noun phrase. • ELLIPSIS: Is the omission of an element of language. As long as the reader can easily recognize what has been deleted, part of the sentence can be omitted to avoid repetition. RECOGNISING SUBORDINATE CLAUSES: By identifying the word class of the first word in the clause. It may be a subordinating conjunction a wh-word or a non-finite verb. It is important to remember that subordinate clauses can be used in all the clause sites except the verb. COHESION COHESION: Is the way in which sentences are linked to create text. There are five forms: 1. LEXICAL COHESION: Is a kind of textual linking dependent on a writer’s or speaker’s choice of words. • COLLOCATION: Words are associated within phrases. Because they are often well known, they are predictable (idioms, clichés). • REPETITION: Either words or phrases are directly repeated or SYNONYMS are used. • SUPERORDINATES AND HYPONYMS: Superordinates are general words, while hyponyms are subdivisions of the general categories (specific words). 2. SUBSTITUTION: One linguistic item is replaced by a shorter one. Several parts of sentence can be replaced. • NOUN PHRASES: Can be replaced by personal pronouns, indefinite pronouns or by the noun phrase the same . Also superordinates and hyponyms can be substitutes. • VERB PHRASE: Can be replaced by the auxiliary verb do. • CLAUSES: Can be replaced using so as a substitute for a positive clause, and not as a substitute for a negative clause. 3. ELLIPSIS: Part of the sentence is left out. It must be clear what the omitted words are, so that the sentence remains meaningful. • NOUN PHRASES: Can be omitted the head of the phrase. • VERB PHRASES: Repeated lexical and auxiliary verbs can be omitted. • CLAUSES: Whole clauses can be omitted within sentence boundaries. 4. REFERENCING: References cannot be interpreted alone because they point to something else in a discourse. • ANAPHORIC REFERENCE: Point backwards in a text. • CATAPHORIC REFERENCE: Point forwards in a text. • EXOPHORIC REFERENCE: Point beyond a text, make a connection with something outside the discourse. 5. LINKING ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Are joining words that provide links either within a sentence or within the larger context of discourse. There are four main types: • ADDITIVE ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Add on information, possibly as an afterthought (and, furthermore…). • ADVERSATIVE ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Help to create a contrast between the sentence they introduce and the preceding sentence. • CASUAL ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Link two clauses or sentences by suggesting that one has been the result of the other (because, since, therefore…). • TEMPORAL ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS: Create a time link between one clause or sentence and another (before, while, then, after that…). 3 – STYLE FOCUS: In a traditional simple declarative sentence, the subject will come first, followed by predicator and other clause elements. In linguistic terms, whatever comes first in the sentence is called the THEME which usually will be the subject. However, it is possible to change the focus through a range of devices. • MARKED THEME: Some elements of the clause can be moved to the front of a sentence (FRONTING or FOREGROUNDING) replacing the usual thematic subject. Adverbials are the most flexible clause element and therefore thematic adverbials are most common. The clause element that has replaced the subject in the initial position is called marked theme. It is also possible to make object and complement marked themes. • END FOCUS: It is possible to put new information towards the end of sentence, thus emphasizing the end rather than the beginning. Sometimes it is stylistically more fluent to place the longest clause element at the end of a sentence. • EXISTENTIAL THERE: It is also possible to create an end focus by using the existential there. Such sentences often point to the general existence of some state of affairs and they are therefore called EXISTENTIAL SENTENCES. There is called a DUMMY SUBJECT because it has no meaning in itself, instead, its function is to put the real subject in a more prominent position (DELAYED SUBJECT). • PASSIVE VOICE: Another way to alter the focus of a sentence is to use the passive voice instead of the active. RHETORIC: Is the art of persuasive discourse. It is used in everyday life to persuade people to do or believe things and in literature to help the readers to engage with and believe in the fictional world which they are presented. • ETHOS: Is a form of persuasion which is dependent upon the individual character of the speaker or writer. • PATHOS: It works on the emotions of the audience. • LOGOS: Is based on reasoned argument; the structure is important since it will help convince the audience of the logic of what is being said or written. It is useful to categorize the most common rhetoric techniques into four key areas: 1. LEXICAL CHOICE: This may be influenced by the viewpoint and tone adopted for a particular subject or situation; it may be dictated by the particular emotive response a writer or speaker wishes to • PUNS: Is a play upon words: • HOMONYMS: Have the same sound and spelling but a different meaning. • HOMOPHONES: Have the same sound but a different spelling and meaning. Newspaper headlines often play with words in a more general way to attract attention. • REPETITION: Of words, phrases, clauses or sentences draws attention to key ideas. The repetition is persuasive because it is emotive. • SYNTAX: Grammatical patterns are used to add variety to a discourse and to emphasize particular features. There is a range of syntactical elements that can be manipulated. • GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION: Of words can changed. When a writer takes a modifier expressing a quality or attitude of one thing and uses it in relation to another, the modifier is called TRANSFERRED EPITHET. • PARALLELISM: Phrase, clause and sentence structures are repeated to give a sense of balance and reason to a discourse. • SENTENCE STRUCTURE: A varied choice of sentence types will draw the reader or listener into the discourse. ■ SIMPLE SENTENCES: Can suggest an innocence and naïvety of style. ■ COMPLEX SENTENCES: Can withhold information until a certain point in the discourse, or subordinate some ideas to others which seem more important. The complexity is directly related to the number of clauses. ■ BRANCHING: Is the arrangement and order of subordinate and main clauses in a discourse. • LEFT BRANCHING: Forces the reader or listener to wait for the main clause by using subordination at the beginning of a sentence. The result can often be dramatic because the audience has wait for all the information. This device is better suited to written than to speech because of the demands it makes on the memory. • RIGHT BRANCHING: Gives the important information first and then supplies a commentary on it or additional information. It can often seem more natural because it deals with information cumulatively and in what seems to be a more logical order: it provides the main clause first, before any embedded subordinate clauses. 4 – HOW TO USE YOUR KNOWLEDGE GRAMMAR: • WORDS AND PHRASES: Sometimes it is useful to consider the ways in which words and phrases are used. You will have to think about why a writer or speaker has made certain lexical choices. The first step is to text mark any words or lexical sets that seem to be particularly effective: comment on their connotation, context and register. Discuss the function and form of key examples, considering the importance and effect of modifiers and qualifiers. Try to comment on the effects created, focusing on the purpose, audience and context of the variety you are analyzing. • CLAUSES AND SENTENCES: Writers and speakers use clauses and sentences or utterances in different ways; as you focus on a range of spoken and written varieties, you need to become accustomed to selecting appropriate examples for analysis. It is useful to identify examples of simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences or utterances because the choices writers or speakers make are often directly linked to their purpose, audience and context. • COHESION: When analyzing cohesion in a discourse, it is necessary to look for examples of all types of lining devices. You should be prepared to identify and comment on examples where cohesion has been used to achieve distinctive effects. Lexical sets may be linked to a specific field or register which help to identify the subject matter or focus of a text. A writer’s or speaker’s use of pronouns instead of proper nouns may leave the identity of a character intentionally vague, so that a dramatic revelation can be made at a significant moment. Examples of repetition, referencing or ellipsis may be used to draw attention to some key element of the discourse. STYLE: Both spoken and written varieties of English use focus, distinctive lexical choices, sound patterning, metaphorical language and structural devices to influence their respective audience. By analyzing the stylistic techniques used, you can draw conclusions about the distinctive features of different varieties. Equally, you will be able to assess and evaluate exactly what a writer or speaker is trying to achieve. It is important to comment on the semantic effects of the device you find: once identified certain stylistic techniques, consider why the writer or speaker has chosen them and the ways in which these will influence the reader or listener. 5 – SOME BASIC CONCEPTS STANDARD ENGLISH: Is a form of English which has been accepted as a norm. It is the variety with which other forms are compared. Even Standard English exist in a variety of forms: spoken, written, formal, informal, personal and impersonal. It is what we usually hear on the television and radio news. In its written form, is found in print and in marked by contractions and comment clauses. Intonation and pauses are used to mark the grammatical boundaries of utterances. They are often long, with multiple co- ordination. Subordination is used but speakers have to make sure that embedded subordinate clauses do not place too many demands upon listeners who cannot easily reconsider an utterance. Punctuation and layout are used to mark the grammatical boundaries of sentences. In more formal kinds of writing, sentences are often marked by multiple subordination and balanced syntactical structures. Prosodic features like volume, pace, rhythm, tone and stress patterns as well as words communicate meaning. Writers use paragraphing and page layout to organize their text. Capitalization and underlining can be used for stress, while question marks and exclamation marks can be used to convey attitude. Speech is a useful social tool which can develop relationships and convey attitudes and opinions directly, and so on. Written text is useful for recording facts and ideas; making notes; and developing large-scale fiction, and so on. Because they are more permanent than speech, written texts can be longer without causing communication problems. *Written texts can imitate spoken words, so that when spoken they sound spontaneous; likewise spoken texts can be transcribed. While prescriptivists see speech as inferior because of its errors and hesitations, descriptivists use speech as the basis for much of their research. Not only does spoken language reflect how language is used in society, but language is first and foremost a spoken phenomenon with written language as a by-product. 6 – ENGLISH: A LIVING LANGUAGE Language cannot exist on its own since it is a product of the people who speak and write it daily, and therefore it develops to meet their needs. DIACHRONIC APPROACH: Evolution from language’s early form (Old English) to its current form (Late Modern). SYNCHRONIC APPROACH: Change considered at a particular moment in time. Linguists analyse a clearly defined period in order to identify characteristic features of English at that time. What changes language? • HISTORICAL FACTORS: Wars, invasions, industrial and technological changes all provide the context for the creation of new words. • CULTURAL TRANSMISSION: A distinctive form of language can give a cultural group a sense of identity, uniting “insiders” and alienating “outsiders”. • SOCIAL FACTORS: Education, social class, age, gender, ethnic background influence the words and grammar that individual speakers use. • GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: The pronunciation of words and the kinds of words and grammatical structures used will vary and change according to the region a speaker comes from (DIALECTS) • THE USE OF DIFFERENT REGISTERS: The words, grammatical structures and formats chosen will vary according to use. Different fields, like law, advertising and religion, will each have distinctive characteristic features. • THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE: English language is affected by change both within the UK and beyond. GENDER: Cultural system by which society constructs different identities for men and women. Feminists believe that society instills certain codes of behavior in boys and girls from a young age: men are seen as logical, rational and objective, while women are emotional, intuitive and subjective. It is language that teaches individuals to act in a certain way, that reinforces society’s expectations, that makes people powerful. • SEXIST LANGUAGE: Reinforces stereotypical attitudes and expectations – it often implies male superiority. Such language can suggest that women are inferior. It is difficult to change these ingrained habits, but in an age of political correctness this kind of divisive language is often seen as unacceptable. So, anti-sexist alternatives are offered as substitutes for the traditional male- dominated language (chairman -> chairperson) Differences in roles men and women take in informal conversation: • On the level of discourse: ■ Men are more likely to interrupt. ■ Men will often reject topics introduced by women, while women will talk about topics raised by men. ■ Women are more likely to use supportive minimal vocalization. ■ While women are more likely to initiate conversation, they succeed less often because males are less willing to co-operate. ■ Men are more likely to use familiar terms of address even where the relative status and background of the speakers would seem to suggest that a formal, impersonal tone is more appropriate. • Grammatical structures are also different: ■ Women use tag questions more frequently. • Verbs are not marked for person or tense; all verbs are used in the base form. Different timescales are indicated by the addition of auxiliary verbs, or by creole words. • Multiple nagatives are common. • Some varieties distinguish between two kinds of “we”. Certain lexical patterns are distinctive: • Reduplication of words is used to extend a limited vocabulary. • Reduplication used to distinguish between two words that sound similar. • Reiterated words used to intensify meanings and create emphasis. • Many nautical words were introduced in the first contact languages that evolved as a means of communication between the native language speakers and traders. INTERNATIONAL CHANGES – ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE. The world wide status of English is linked to the growth of the British Empire and the colonization of places like India and South Africa from the 17th century onwards. In the military and commercial contacts that followed, native languages were often suppressed by the British rules. In new environment, English acquires local nuances, particularly in its lexis. AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH: Many of the early settlers of Australia were convicts from the lower social classes who were more likely to use distinctive regional dialects, and it is therefore sometimes thought that the distinctive Australian accents resulted from the mix of UK regional accents handed down to descendants of the first English speakers. Australian English is marked by the number of Aboriginal words that have been assimilated into the language. These words filled gaps where there were no English equivalents. AMERICAN ENGLISH: Is a separate form (from BE) with its own spelling patterns and distinctive pronunciation. Some idioms, prepositions and the lexis assimilated from America’s immigrant population are now often heard and sometimes used by UK English speakers. JEWISH ENGLISH: Has made mass audience familiar with a linguistic device called FRONTING (in this kind of structure, an inversion of the word order is used to create a mock emphasis of disbelief). INDIAN ENGLISH: Since it is usually learnt from books which rarely keep up to date with the subtleties of linguistic change, Indian English is often considered to be very formal and dated. JAPANESE ENGLISH: Is known for its amusing misinterpretations. Such variations from the source language, however, do not really cause problems of understanding. Not all countries welcome the spread of English. FRANCE: The Académie Française (the official body which protects and regulates the French language) banned the use of blended words on the radio; instead, French equivalents must be used: failure to do so will result in a fine. CAP.8 – LANGUAGE VARIATION: REGIONAL AND SOCIAL Not only does language change over time, it also has different forms that exist at the same time. Children that grow up in different communities and acquire language, they don’t learn one identical form of communication because their learning depends on their social, regional and cultural background. The older speakers are the more likely to be influence to use traditional form of language, while younger speakers are more likely to be influence by current trends. Women are often thought to be more sensitive to ‘standard’ forms of language in formal context than men and tend therefore to be more likely to use SE and standard pronunciations. People with professional and non-professional jobs will tend to use language very differently: professional people are more likely to use the ‘ prestige’ forms associated with SE; non-professional workers are more likely to use non-standard versions. The study of language variation considers: ACCENT DIALECT 8.2 ACCENT Accent refers only to pronunciation that indicated where a person is form, geographically or socially. A regional accent links a speaker to a specific area in which certain kinds of pronunciations are heard; A social accent relates to the cultural and educational background of a speaker. Speakers of RP are often described as having no accent, but in the field of linguistics, everyone has some kind of accent. RP is therefore just one of many English accents, despite the fact thata it’s not linked to a specific region. When pronunciation differs dramatically from RP, speakers are said to have a broad accent. When linguists analyse accents, they consider three key areas: In the speech of older regional speakers, the post-vocalic /r/ still occurs in words ending with a vowel sound: tar would be pronounced /ta:/ in RP /ta:r/ by an older speaker in a rural community The glottal stop In RP, the glottal stop is used on very few occasions, but in regional dialects it is common, particularly among young people in urban areas. It frequently occurs as an allophone (a variation in the articulation of a particular phoneme) of /t/ in the medial and final position: Water would be pronounced /wɔ:tə/ in RP /wɔ:?ə/ in a non-standard accent DIFFERENCES IN VOWELS The phoneme /i:/ In RP, words ending with -y -ey -ee are pronounced with the phoneme / I/: /pItI/ pity /hᶺnI/ honey /bI/ bee Northern accents also use /I/ : /nɔ:rməlI/ normally Southern accents tend to use /i:/ : /rIəli:/ really Vowel a In RP, the vowel a is pronounced as /a:/ rather than /æ/ when it precedes a voiceless fricative (/f/, /Ɵ/ æ/or /s/) or a consonant cluster with the phoneme /m/ or /n/ in the initial position: Most Northern accents, however, will use the short /æ/: /græs/ grass /bæƟ/ bath /træns/ trance /sæmpl/ sample PHONEME INVENTORY ..is a list of the phonemes that are or are not used from regional dialects. 8.3 DIALECT A DIALECT is a subdivision of a language which is identified by variations in lexis and grammar. The different dialects of English may vary socially or regionally just as accent do. LEXICAL VARIATION Within different geographical regions, words often develop that are unique to a certain community. These may be incomprehensible to people from another area, although when heard in context, other English speakers will probably be able to work out an approximate meaning. • Nobby: smart, brilliant, really good;(South Wales dialect) • Cutch: cuddle; (South Wales dialect) • Loke: path leading up to a house; (Norfolk dialect) • Dyke: ditch; (Norfolk dialect) GRAMMATICAL VARIATION Many of the non-standard grammar features that can be identified occur across boundaries – verbs and pronouns are particularly likely to vary from the standard. 8.4. ACCENT AND DIALECT LEVELLING Because people are now far more likely to move around the country, some linguists believe that older forms of English are modified by contact with the language of new-comers; because of contact with other forms of English, regional accents and dialects lose their distinctive features and become more similar. Linguists call this process LEVELLING. An example of natural evolution of accent and dialect can be seen in the emergence of Estuary English , also called New London Voice. It has a high profile because of the number of radio and television personalities who use it. The following characteristics can be identified: • /t/ in the medial position is elided: /gæwIc/ Gatwick; • As in the Southern accent, /ا/ is often pronounced as /ᶷ/: /bIᶷd/ build; • /p/ and /k/ sounds in the final position are elided: /pɒ/ pop - /stI/ stick; • It has a distinctive vocabulary with may Americanicisms: cheers, basically, guesstimate. Estuary English is adopted by young people who feel that it is a form English with street credibility, the middle class use it to avoid to being marked as ’posh’ and it is used in the City instead of RP which is seen as alienating many people. It is also called a classless dialect because its appeal seems to be so wide. CAP 10 – SPOKEN LANGUAGE The CULTURAL EXPECTATION and SHARED VALUES of a society dictate the roles speakers must fill if they are to be accepted and we begin to learn the necessary skills from a very early age; we assimilate ritualistic patters as the basis for spoken exchanges. Participants are involved in a constant process of evaluation which can be both conscious and subconscious: making lexical and grammatical choices, which are appropriated for the context, using paralinguistics to reinforce and underpin the words spoken; interpreting the meaning of utterances..and so on. 10.2 THE FUNCTION OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE Writing does have obvious benefits: it is permanent; it makes communication over a physical distance possible; it can be revised; it can be reread at any time..and so on. Spoken language has strength that cannot be matched by written language because most forms of spoken language are interactional (feedback): points can be clarified; questions can be asked; topics cab be easily changed.. We can rely on non-verbal signals like gesture, facial expression and non-verbal sounds as well as the words themselves to understand an exchange. Equally because audience is more likely to be known, shared knowledge will prevent problem arising from any vagueness. Just as written varieties can have a whole range of purpose, so too can spoken language. It may be informative, in a lecture (referential); social, in an informal conversation (phatic); it may aim to get something done, as in a telephone call to a plumber (transactional); or to reveal a speaker’s personal state of mind or attitude at a certain time (expressive). 10.3 FEATURES OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE Closing are used to sum up the exchange referring back to earlier topics and adopting frequently occurring formulae. In the dialogue it is possible to classify a number of SPEAKER MOVES: FRAMING, in which opening and closing create an overall structure INITIATING, in which a topic is established FOCUSING, in which comments specify the direction of a topic SUPPORTING or FOLLOWING-UP, which encourages to continue with that topic. CHALLENGING, which interrupts a topic or introduces a new one. - PROSODIC FEATURES are a means of dividing spoken utterances into smaller units just as punctuation, capital letters and paragraphing do in visual way for written language. INTONATION PATTERNS can vary dramatically. By varying the intonation, speakers can convey different grammatical moods and attitudes of surprise, pleasure and so on. Intonation has functional as well as semantic uses. PITCH may be high, mid or low. Changes in pitch are usually linked to meaning and the speaker’s relationship to the topic: a raised pitch often indicates excitement or enthusiasm; a lower pitch marks a finale or anticlimax of some kind. STRESSED or UNSTRESSED WORDS in English is directly linked to the rhythm of utterances. It also marks words of importance – a change of stress can change meaning. EX: I ate an icecream – I ate an icecream – I ate an icecream LOUDNESS and PACE: loudness (loud, quiet, or increasing or decreasing in volume) and pace (fast, slow, or getting faster or slower) of spoken language can also influence the meaning and reveal attitude. - PAUSES are seen to be acceptable particularly where the manner is informal. Where the manner is formal, however, although pauses can be used for dramatic effects, the rhythm is usually more regular and stylised. (VOICELESS HESITATION, VOICED PAUSES and WORD SEARCHING also create pauses in spoken language). - VOCAL EFFECTS (giggling, coughing, throat clearing) and PARALINGUISTICS (gestures, posture) can reinforce or contradict the meaning conveyed by the spoken word. - LEXIS can be formal when it is associated with written language if a topic does requires formal subject-specific language. An informal atmosphere can be recognised in the use of conversational lexis (yeah, ‘cos, all right); colloquial idiom (in a minute, the thing is); clichés (that’s life); hyperbole (on and on and on, thousands); and phatic communication and vocalization; abbreviations, slang, jokes. Spoken discourse can often be ambiguous because speakers use language inexplicitly but this usually cause no problems with understanding because participants can rely on the context and non-verbal communication for extra information. Phonologically vague utterances like mumbling and tailing off can also be overcome because there is a permanent possibility of recapitulation. - GRAMMAR. Typically, spoken discourse in an informal context will be marked by frequent use of minor sentences and co-ordinated clauses; phrasal verbs and informal ‘filler’ verbs; and contracted forms. In more formal situations, grammar will be less erratic and more likely to conform to standard patterns. Spoken language is very versatile. - NON-FLUENCY FEATURES are common. Brief OVERLAPS, for instance, are quite common in conversation for many reasons: 1. because speaker have to compete for a turn in a speech encounter where lots of participants are involved; 2. a speaker may have misjudged the end of a turn 3. we are in the presence of a speaker who is particularly dominant and insists on interrupting. Speech encounter are usually co-operative and most of overlaps are resolved quickly. VOICED HESITATION or FILLED PAUSES are also examples of non- fluency which are tolerated in spoken language. - PROBLEMS Temporary interruptions can be dealt with in different ways: REPAIRS. If a speaker chooses a wrong word, for examples, she can correct herself or another can correct her; if a listener mishears a word, he can ask for clarification and so on. TOPIC LOOPS can offer an alternative method of dealing with a problem. These involve reintroducing an earlier topic in order to move away from the disruption. LISTENER RESPONSE. A speaker who is aware of listener response can make repairs before communication breaks down. EX: ‘you know’, ‘are you with me?’, ‘what I was trying to say..’, ‘what I really meant was...’ These are forms of repair that rely on the speaker being sensitive to listeners. SILENCE in conversation can require repair. exception. PARAGRAPHS Are usually only a few lines long. Are longer so the reader has to concentrate for longer periods of time. TYPOGRAPHICA L FEATURES Are very varied: the first paragraph uses larger print and is often bold; then from paragraph to paragraph the print becomes smaller till the use of standard size. Initial letters are usually large. Are more standard. The same size of print is used throughout except for headlines, straplines and sub-headlines. PUNCTUATION Is used sparingly: • Commas are often omitted avoiding break ups in the text and complicating the reading process. • Inverted commas are used to mark direct speech and to highlight key words. • Dashes mark parenthesis, which make the style informal and chatty. Is used traditionally and more formally than in tabloids. Dashes are less frequent. ALLITERATIVE AND RHETORICAL PATTERNING Alliterative patterning is used to make the text more memorable. Rhetorical patterning is more complex. Rhythmical effects are achieved through balanced phrases and antithesis. SENTENCE STRUCTURE Is often simple or compound, although one main and one subordinate clause is common: • Long sentences are kept away from the Is varied to sustain the interest of the reader. Few paragraphs are of only one sentences. Paragraphs can, however, be made up of only two or three sentences. beginning . • Paragraphs are usually composed of one or two sentences. • Word order can be changed. CO- ORDINATORS IN THE INITIAL POSITION Are common. These act as a bridge and sustain the narrative pace. Loosely co- ordinated sentences reflect speech patterns. Are not common. Cohesion is created through referencing and lexical repetition rather than through conjunctions. ADVERBIALS Are used at the start of sentence to change the focus and keep readers interested. Are used in a variety of positions, depending upon the emphasis most appropriate to the meaning. MODIFIERS Are common and very few nouns stand alone. Pre- modification is more common than post- modification. • Modifiers are coined. • Puns are common. • Description is often vivid. Are used to provide accurate detail. Description is always precise. Post- modification is as common as pre-modification. LEXIS Is often inventive and emphatic. • The tone is informal and colloquialisms are common. • Compounds are created to attract attention. Is more specific, formal and restrained. Vivid, dramatic lexis is not used merely to sensationalize. ANGLE The angle adopted is usually human. The tone is conversational and the The angle adopted tends to be more factual. There is more likely to be evidence approach is often sensational and dramatic. of research and a greater concern with accuracy. The tone is often restrained and controlled. Some newspapers can be easily classified in terms of tabloid and broadsheet. But a third category is useful: • Middle-market paper: fall between tabloids and broadsheet. Whether broadsheet, tabloid or middle-market paper, the ideology of the owner and editor dictates the kinds of stories printed and the political or moral slant transmitted to the reader. THE FUNCTION OF NEWSPAPER LANGUAGE: Originally newspapers were used by government to promote certain political views. By the 19th century, they were used to convey news; while the 20th century newspaper now deals as much with entertainment as it does with information. Newspapers do convey information about everyday events that affect our daily lives. The breadth of the information they cover is very wide: international, national and local news; reviews of film, television, radio, books, music and art; sport events, financial matters; science; personal problems; and so on. Local newspapers act as community bulletins, providing information about local events and issues. Newspapers can be influential: they can affect the way we think about international and national events presenting issues in a certain way. • Broadsheet: tend to be associated with educated professional people. • Tabloid: associated with working class. • Middle-market: fall somewhere between the two. FEATURES OF NEWSPAPER LANGUAGE: HEADLINES: There are three kinds: 1. MAIN HEADLINE: Larger than others and occasionally in colour. 2. STRAPLINE or OVERLINE: Appears above the main one, it is used to provide extra information or to clarify the main headline. 12 – THE LANGUAGE OF ADVERTISING THE NATURE OF ADVERTISING: The aim of all advertisements is to draw attention to particular products or services through announcements paid for by an individual or a group wishing to inform or influence a particular audience. In a competitive market, advertisers have to be better or more persuasive than their rivals if they are to succeed. Their marketing campaigns seek to encourage ‘customer loyalty’ by establishing a clear and distinctive image and identity which will make their products or services stand out from equivalent brands from other companies. Advertisers focus their advertising on particular groups of people. They may divide people by age, gender, race or social class. Such groupings help advertisers to target the people most likely to buy their products. On commercial television, programming television, programming schedules try to ‘package’ audiences by running certain kinds of programmes at certain times: this encourages advertisers to buy time, because it is easier to focus on a specific audience than on a very general one. Advertisements work by raising interest in a product or service. The strategies used in each case must be appropriate both to the target audience and to the kind of product or service offered. Research has shown that people remember particular advertisements if the product is different; if the advertisement itself is unusual; or if it has some personal relevance. Often the initial impact will be caused by the visual content and the overall design. But it is the use of language that will ensure that the product or service identity and the brand name are remembered. Typically, the language of advertising is positive, unreserved and colloquial. Advertisers choose vivid concrete words and make their COPY (the words attached to an advert) memorable by using metaphorical language and non-standard spellings. Because advertisements are designed to appeal to ‘typical’ members of certain groups, they use stereotypes. In Britain there are stringent controls on what is acceptable in advertising. Regulations like the British Code of Advertising Practice and the British Code of Sales Promotion try to ensure that all advertisements are legal, decent, honest and truthful. Despite detailed codes of conduct, however, there are still campaigns that people object to. Complaints might be based on various features of the campaign: • ‘Hard sell’ tactics or fraudulent claims. • The effect on children. • The morals apparently promoted. • Shock tactics. THE FUNCTION OF ADVERTISING: The main function of advertising is to persuade; its subordinate function is to provide information. Different kinds of advertising use different techniques to persuade and inform. Some will use the copy to provide information like the size, the brand name, the price, and the address and telephone number of the shop or company, relying on the product itself to promote sales. Other advertisements will highlight a particular background as more important than the product, so that the image of the product is the selling point. Others will rely on the associations between the product and a particular context. In each case, the function of the advertisement is to get you to buy. Advertisements, however, do more than just sell products: different advertisers have different purposes. ADVERTISER: FUNCTION: Charities Collecting funds, attracting support and voluntary helpers. Commercial companies Selling goods and services, attracting investment, changing attitudes, creating new desires in a target audience, giving information about a product or service. Government Giving information, publicising planning proposals and health and safety issues. Media Attracting a target audience, selling advertising space. Event organisers Promoting events and demonstrations. Political parties Winning votes, attracting members or financial support. Private individuals Selling and purchasing goods and services, announcing personal events and occasions. Schools, colleges, universities Informing prospective students of courses facilities, and future career possibilities. FEATURES OF ADVERTISING LANGUAGE: Advertisements designed for a visual medium like television or the cinema screen will be dominated by images, and usually these will be more important than any accompanying spoken or written words. However, prosodic features like intonation, pace and rhythm will influence the viewer and the use of a written slogan can make the product more memorable. In print forms like newspapers and magazines, advertisements rely on a combination of copy and image. Because print is not transient, as an image on the screen is, it can be reconsidered: the written language accompanying the image can therefore be more extensive. Advertisements for different media use different techniques, but there are a number of features that are common to both spoken and written examples. First, it is always important to establish: • The advertiser (logo, slogan, brand name, distinctive colour or image); • The target audience (age, gender, social grade); • The function of the advertisement or its message; • The selling techniques: • a product-based approach will praise the features of a product or service; • an audience-based approach will try to convince the target audience that they need a particular product or service; • an impact-based approach will aim to attract attention visually or linguistically. By focusing on the language and images, it is possible to analyse the way in which an advertisement is meant to influence its target audience. • Sentence structures are unusual because elements are often left out in order to keep sentences short. Verbless clauses are common. • METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE: Metaphors link emotive associations to a product, building up an impression that will influence potential consumers; symbolism, likewise encourages viewers or readers to make certain connections that will colour their view; personification or animation of inanimate objects can create a mysterious or comic atmosphere; puns can be clever or humorous in their manipulation of language; and ambiguity can both create humour and provoke interest through the double meanings it promotes. • RHETORICAL DEVICES: Repetition highlights key points or a particular brand name; parallelism allows advertisers to use structured patterns to contrast or emphasise points; rhythmic beats make copy more memorable; and phonological patterning like alliteration and rhyme make slogans and copy stand out. • TYPOGRAPHY: Print size and shape, colour and layout are often used consistently throughout a campaign, and these therefore become as significant as the language in persuading readers and viewers to act in the way the advertisers intend. TYPES OF ADVERTISING: • PRODUCT ADVERTISING: • CLASSIFIED ADVERTISEMENTS: Try to sell products or services to people who already know what they are looking for. They are described as UNINTRUSIVE ADVERTISING because readers seek them. They use the minimum number of words and convey the most relevant information in as concise way as possible. Abbreviations are commonly used. They are more likely to be informative than persuasive. • POINT-OF-SALE ADVERTISING: Is very much the same. Local people will write out a card and place it where other local people shop. This kind of advertising is directed specifically at the local community and therefore its target audience is quite limited. • DIRECT MAIL: Comes straight to people’s homes, addressed to individuals whose names had been taken from sources like the electoral register. The form of such advertising is usually a letter which tries to persuade the addressee to buy a particular product. A sample or a ‘money off’ coupon will often be enclosed. The tone is informal and direct address is used to try and create a personal relationship between sender and reader. • SERVICE ADVERTISING: Is very similar to product advertising except that instead of a concrete product, a service is offered. It may be a banking service or a mortgage and so on. Classified advertisements, point-of-sale advertisements and direct mail can all offer a ‘service’ to a target audience. • CHARITY ADVERTISING: This kind of advertisement is distinctive because it is non-profit making. Rather than ‘buy’, the message is now ‘give’. Charities depend upon reminding the public that there is a continuing need for donations, and advertising fulfils this purpose, particularly when the campaigns are emotive or sensational in some way. Charities employ advertising agencies just as commercial companies do, and their campaigns are carefully crafted to influence the public. A dramatic approach allows charities to get more public attention because it generates more media coverage than a charity could afford to pay for. • INFORMATION ADVERTISING: Non-profit-making bodies like the Government and commercial companies use the same kinds of mass-marketing techniques for disseminating important information. The only difference between this kind of advertising and product/service or charity advertising is that the function is different. People are no longer asked to ‘buy’ or ‘give’, but to ‘know’ 13 – THE LANGUAGE OF LITERATURE – NARRATIVE PROSE. THE NATURE OF NARRATIVE PROSE: It is difficult to categorize it because prose is so wide-ranging. Above all, it offers opportunities for authors to experiment, to manipulate language in order to create the best possible effects. At the heart of a novelist’s work is the desire to create a fictional world which exist alongside the real one. It may be a representation of the past, the present or of an unknown future; the characters may be realistic or caricatures; the physical and social backgrounds may be familiar or unfamiliar – ultimately, the author must decide whether to draw readers into his created world or to alienate them. THE FUNCTION OF NARRATIVE PROSE: The dominant function is poetic because literature deals with human emotions and states of mind, the expressive use of language is also important. One of the main functions of fiction is to entertain, but authors can do much more than this: narrative prose can raise the reader’s awareness about an issue or about the world in general, and can thus educate and inform. FEATURES OF NARRATIVE PROSE: • MANNER: can be formal or informal, depending upon the relationship the author wants to create with the reader. Often the modern novel will try to re-create the language of everyday, particularly in first person narratives. An author may use irony to show the difference between how things are and how they might be; to mock certain characters; to highlight a discrepancy between how characters see a situation and its true nature; or to emphasize that a reader knows more than the characters themselves. • POINT OF VIEW: the point of view is central to narrative prose because the reader needs to know who is telling the story. In a first person narrative, the I narrator relates the events she or he experiences. The choice of a first person narrator produces a personal relationship which tends to encourage the reader to empathize with the main character. Because this approach gives only one person’s view of the story, however, it can be biased, showing a limited understanding of the events and other characters. In a third person narrative the narrator is often omniscient. Such narrators tend to give an overview of the story. There are two kinds of omniscient narrator: