Language Variation and Metaphorical Language: A Comprehensive Study - Prof. Halliday, Sintesi del corso di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Language Variation and Metaphorical Language: A Comprehensive Study - Prof. Halliday e più Sintesi del corso in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! 3. STYLE Language can be manipulated. There are two important stylistic areas we need to consider: focus and rhetoric. FOCUS In a simple sentence, the subject comes first, followed by the predicator. In linguistic terms, the first part of the sentence is called THEME (the subject or what replaces it). However, we can change the focus by using some devices. MARKED THEME Some elements of a sentence can be moved to the front, replacing the theme. Adverbials are the most flexible clause elements. The device of placing a clause element at the front of a sentence is called FRONTING or FOREGROUNDING. The clause element that has replaced the subject in the initial position is called a MARKED THEME. EXAMPLE: NORMAL SENTENCE: (The train) SUBJECT (departed)PREDICATOR (on time) ADV. (that morning) ADV. MARKED THEME: (That morning) ADV., (the train) SUBJECT (departed) PREDICATOR (on time) ADV. Also objects and complements can be marked themes, but this is most common in spoken language or to create a dramatic effect. NORMAL SENTENCE: (The garden) (was) (uncontrolled) (after years of neglect). MARKED THEME: (Uncontrolled) (was) (the garden) (after years of neglect). END FOCUS It is also possible to put new information towards the end of a sentence. This is described as END FOCUS.  (I) (gave) (a brand-new pen) (to John). EXISTENTIAL THERE It is also possible to use THERE to put the real subject in a more prominent position. There has no meaning, for this reason is called a dummy subject.  (There) (was) (a guard) (on the train). The formula is usually: there+ to be+ subject; there+ to arise/ to occur+ subject. IT is also considered a dummy subject.  (It) (was) (Lucy) (that) (told) (me) (the news). PASSIVE VOICE In an active sentence, the clause elements follow the usual pattern, but by using the passive, the writer can change the focus. (The change) (was counted up) (at closing time) (by the bank-tellers). By omitting the agent, the focus will be on the events. RETHORIC It is used in the art of persuasive discourse, to convince people to do or believe in something. Aristotele established three key types of persuasion: - Ethos: it depends upon the character of the speaker or writer because it is what will determine the viewpoint and the tone. - Pathos: it works one the emotions of the audience. - Logos: is based on reasoned argument. It is possible to identify the techniques used to achieve certain effects. It is useful to categorise the most common techniques into four key areas. LEXICAL CHOICE Always consider a writer’s or speaker’s choice of words. May be influenced by ethos, pathos or logos. SOUND PATTERNING To create some effects, writers or speaker could use some devices playing with sounds. We should recognise: - Alliteration: repetition of a consonant, usually in first position - Assonance: repetition of a vowel - Consonance: repetition of a consonant, in the medial or final position - Onomatopoeia: when the sound of a word directly links to its meaning - Rhyme or Half-rhyme: are exact or partial repetitions of a sound, usually at the end of a poetic line. METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE It allows a speaker or writer to combine everyday language with devices that create special semantic effects. We should recognise: - Irony: the use of a word, phrase or paragraph turned from its usual meaning to a contradictory or opposing one - Metaphor: describes one thing in terms of another, creating an implicit comparison - Metonymy: is the term used when the name of an attribute or thing is substituted for the thing itself - Oxymoron: uses two apparently contradictory words, put together to create a special effect - Paradox: consists of an apparently self-contradictory statement which contains some kind of deeper meaning below the surface - Personification: is the term used when an object or idea is given human qualities. - Simile: two things are explicitly compared by using a marker such as the prepositions like or as - Symbolism: is the use of an object to represent or stand for something else - scales, for instance, symbolise justice - Synecdoche: is a rhetorical device in which the part stands for the whole, and some¬ thing wider than the thing mentioned is intended. STRUCTURAL DEVICES educational background of a speaker. When pronunciation differs dramatically from RP, speakers are said to have a broad accent. Research has shown that one speaker rarely says the same words in precisely the same way twice and pronunciation is altered constantly to suit the context. When linguists analyse accents, they consider three key areas: personal accent; social accent; and regional accent. PERSONAL ACCENTS Individual pronunciation changes may be linked to different contexts or moods, or to physical reasons like a sore throat or a mouth full of food. In a formal context, speakers are far more likely to articulate words carefully, in informal interaction, speech will often be quicker, and the articulation will be less precise. CONVERGENCE describes the process of accent change in which two speakers modify their accents in order to become more similar. DIVERGENCE reflects an opposite movement in which accents become further apart - this will usually only happen in a situation where a community is isolated from the influence of other communities. On a small scale, it can occur where two speakers take part in a hostile speech encounter, both exaggerating their different accents in order to emphasise their opposing position. SOCIAL ACCENTS When linguists consider the ‘social’ elements of an individual’s accent, they are interested in things like the speaker’s class, educational background, occupation and gender. Speakers in the lower social classes tend to have left formal education earlier and to have non-professional rather than professional jobs. They are far more likely to have a regional accent and to have speech marked by informal segmental features like elision and assimilation. Speakers from higher social classes are more likely to have stayed in education and to have professional jobs - they are therefore more likely to sneak RP or modified RP. Speakers who are trying to emulate RP often overcompensate: this process is called HYPERCORRECTION. REGIONAL ACCENTS The country is divided in different areas, defining the different accents. Each lines defines an area and is called ISOGLOSS. When you cross an isogloss, you pass from one accent or dialect type to another. The following list summarises the main pronunciation differences: 1) Consonants: h, u:, r, glottal stop 2) Vowels: I, a. Some vowels that occur in RP are absent from regional dialects. It is therefore possible to distinguish between dialects by creating a phoneme inventory - a list of the phonemes that are or are not used. DIALECT A DIALECT is a subdivision of a language which is identified by variations in lexis and grammar. The different dialects of English may vary socially or regionally just as accents do, but despite variations they will remain largely comprehensible to other English speakers. English is made up of a number of regional dialects. Linguists can identify the main characteristics of different regions, and the isoglosses establish boundaries which group together non-standard dialect forms with similar distinctive linguistic features. Regional variation can be seen in the dialectal differences between town and country. In rural areas, non-standard dialects are often stronger because the arrival of new¬ comers who use different dialects is less common. Equally, age can affect the kind of dialect used. The broadest non-standard dialects tend to be spoken by older members of a community who have had little prolonged contact with other dialect users. Some linguists believe that non-standard dialects are dying out. This may be the case with some of the older rural forms of English, but many new forms of English are appearing to replace them. This is particularly true of urban areas. As urban centres grow and as educational and occupational opportunities offer more people the chance to move between social classes, non-standard dialects can be defined on a social rather than regional basis. It is important to remember that Standard English is one of the many dialectal forms of English. LEXICAL VARIATION Within different geographical regions, words often develop that are unique to a certain community. These may be incomprehensible to people from another area. GRAMMATICAL VARIATION - Nouns: The plural of a noun is usually formed by adding the inflection. However, in many phrases that contain a noun of measurement and a cardinal number, no plural inflection is used. - Adjectives: Some adjectives in SE end in -en {golden, silken, wooden and olden). A few regional dialects in the South-West, however, still use archaic inflections. In SE, the comparative and superlative are formed either by adding the suffixes -erl-est to an adjective, or by using more/most before an adjective. In many non-standard regional dialects, both forms are used simultaneously: the more fiercer dog and the most coldest wind. - Adverbs: In many non-standard dialects, the adverb -ly inflection is not used. - Prepositions: In Northern dialects, till is used for SE to - for example, she’s going till the theatre. - Conjunctions: In Northern dialects while is used for SE until - for example. I’m going while dinner- time. - Pronouns: Pronominal forms vary significantly in non-standard dialects. Subject and object personal pronouns are often interchangeable, particularly in the dialects of the South- West: have you seen she? Relative pronouns are frequently non-standard in regional dialects. Where SE uses who or that for people and which or that for non-human things, non-standard dialects will often use which for people and what for both human and non-human things: the man which I described is here and the house what I live in is big. Demonstrative pronouns are also frequently non-standard: where SE uses those, many regional dialects will use them or they - for instance, them horses are wild or they horses are wild. - Verbs: In the present tense many regional dialects standardise the patterns of SE. Eastern dialects tend to drop the third person singular -5 inflection: he walk. The simple present tense can be used to refer to events in the past - this is called the HISTORIC PRESENT. Where verbs have two separate forms for the simple past tense and the past participle, regional dialects often use only one form. Present participles are often used in an archaic form in which the prefix a- is added, particularly in the Midlands and in Eastern dialects: a-going, a- running, a- sewing. - Negatives: Multiple negatives are used in many dialects: The most commonly occurring form is the double negative: I haven’t done nothing. ACCENT AND DIALECT LEVELLING A diachronic study of the English language shows its changes over time, but it is also possible to identify changes that are taking place now. As society changes to mirror developments in technology, politics, morals, and culture, so language is adapted to meet the new demands placed upon it. At first, old and new forms will exist alongside each other, but as the young people who use the new forms themselves have children, the more traditional accents and dialects will slowly disappear. Because of contact with other forms of English, regional accents and dialects lose their distinctive features and become more similar. Linguists call this process LEVELLING. Some people change their social class as well as their regional base and this too affects the nature of English. The appearance of ‘social’ rather than regional accents and dialects is a sign of the way in which people see themselves in terms of their language. By choosing a social rather than a regional form of English, speakers are making a statement about their cultural and political identity rather than their regional background. People are making choices consciously or subconsciously and the results of this are seen in the accents and dialects they use. An example of the natural evolution of accents and dialects can be seen in the emergence of Estuary English, also called the New London Voice. It has a high profile because of the number of radio and television personalities who use it. It was first associated with speakers on the banks of the Thames in Essex and in North Kent, but because of the influence of the media it has now spread much further afield. It is often called a classless dialect because its appeal seems to be so wide. 11. THE LANGUAGE OF NEWSPAPERS The nature of newspaper language In the eighteenth century, newspapers were used by the government. By the nineteenth century, however, what can be described as ‘modern journalism’ began with the appearance of newspapers still popular today. Newspaper reporting became more scandalous, and style and form changed to suit the new approaches. Today, there is much debate about what makes a good news story. Anything unexpected or dramatic is newsworthy and ‘bad news is always good news’ for the journalists and editors. Editors look for relevance in the stories they print, which means that the content must have a direct bearing on the people of Britain in some way: culturally, socially, politically, and so on. Continuity is important and newspapers like to be able to develop running coverage of an event. To make abstract issues like politics and economics more approachable, journalists try to personalise them. The news values of a newspaper govern the kind of stories which editors print. Choices are ultimately made based on what will sell newspapers, both to readers and advertisers. Newspapers are often divided into two main categories: tabloid and broadsheet. TABLOID: - paper is printed on A2 size paper, folded to A3; - tabloid papers are known as the popular or gutter press; - tabloids provide sensation. BROADSHEET: - paper is printed on A1 and folded to A2; - are known as the serious or quality press: - provide information. narrative chronologically; and the conclusion will often provide some kind of assessment or evaluation.  Statement and opinion stories: They attempt to summarise an argument and provide readers with key information. Although a report may be triggered off by a specific event, this will only be the springboard for a wider consideration of related issues. In other words, they give readers more than just a chronological human-interest story.  Running stories: Journalists make the most of an ongoing story because they hope that once their readers are interested, they will continue to buy the newspaper to keep up to date with new findings. Tabloids particularly will sensationalise and dramatize stories to keep old readers and attract new ones. 17. THE LANGUAGE OF POLITICS THE NATURE OF POLITICAL LANGUAGE Political language is often accused of attempting to conceal the truth and euphemism is a common way of making a harsh reality more palatable. EUPHEMISMS are words or phrases that substitute mild or vague language to soften the harsh reality of an event - for example, pushing up the daisies or passing away for dying. Many people believe that language influences thought: therefore, if language is manipulated, so are the very processes of thought. In other words, politicians can influence the way we think about the events happening around us, and the words they choose are a crucial part of that process. Each politician has a particular way of seeing the world, a particular IDEOLOGY. The concept of ideology refers to a body of ideas or a belief system which is organised from a specific point of view - for instance. Conservative and Labour politicians think about society in different ways. Because they have different ideologies, they approach political issues from different angles and often find contrasting solutions to the same political problems. Through their use of language, they encourage the voters to identify with their own particular ideology or world view. THE FUNCTION OF POLITICAL LANGUAGE Linguists are interested in the words and structures politicians use to create a certain view of the world. By analysing these, it is possible to identify occasions when politicians try to subvert or obscure issues, evade questions, or arouse audience emotions. As well as the actual words and structures used, however, linguists are also interested in the PRAGMATICS of political language. Pragmatics considers the meaning beyond what has actually been said and concentrates on the way meaning is constructed in different contexts. Political language can be informative (referential function) or persuasive (conative function) and is often rhetorical. It is always useful to consider the speaker or writer, the audience, the purpose, and the context of any example since each of these factors can change the nature of the language used. FEATURES OF POLITICAL LANGUAGE There are many examples of political language in everyday life, and it is possible to categorise some linguistic features that are common to most of these: MANNERS Manners is usually formal, and there tend to be formulaic utterances which add to the formality. In the House of Commons, for instance, phrases like I beg to move... I and the honourable Lady are common. LEXIS Lexis is usually subject specific and abstract nouns are quite common since discussions are often theoretical even though they may be directly linked to a proposed plan of action. Politicians aim to represent society as it really is, but as has already been seen, they can use language to adapt reality to suit their purposes. It is therefore useful to identify any use of implication or secondary meaning. For example, if someone were to say that a room was too warm, the intention could in fact be to imply that the fire should be turned off. In a social context, it might be considered more polite not to make the request more directly; in a political context, the implication might represent an attempt by a politician to evade a direct answer. The naming of politicians is often significant: sometimes their role title is used rather than their name. The use of the role title instead of an individual name can also be used to direct people away from a focus on the person. GRAMMAR The grammar of political discourse varies, depending upon whether the utterances are spoken or written - inevitably, written statements tend to be more complex than speeches that have been written to be spoken or oral replies to questions. However, the use of pronouns is significant in that pronominal choices often reflect the ideology of individual politicians by conveying their personal negative and positive attitudes. The connotations of the pronouns selected are not always predictable, but politicians with the same world view will probably choose the same kinds of pronouns. Pronouns enable politicians to accept, deny or distance them¬ selves from their responsibilities; to encourage their supporters; to distance the opposition; and to give a personal touch to their discourse. The framing of questions is also important. When questions start with the modal will, they imply that because of the added politeness associated with the verb any rejection of the request made will seem unnecessarily rude. METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE Metaphorical language is a significant part of the rhetoric used by politicians to persuade their audience, and the more original the image created, the more effectively the idea will be conveyed. Metaphors help explain complex arguments since one element is used to develop understanding of another element. Politicians use metaphor to prove a point, to provide light relief, and so on. TYPES OF POLITICAL LANGUAGE MANIFESTOS AND CAMPAIGN STATEMENTS Candidates for general elections produce material presenting the views of their party, but also convey their own personal stance in order to give their campaign a distinctive identity. The main function is therefore conative. The referential function is subordinate. PRE-SCRIPTED SPEECHES Any speech which has been prepared ahead of delivery has been consciously planned - the politician is involved in the selection of lexical, syntactical and metaphorical features and in the overall organisation. Like a campaign statement, choices are made in advance to achieve the maximum possible effect on the audience. The overall effect will inevitably depend upon the audience and context, but in analysis of a scripted speech it is important to first identify the features of ‘speeches written to be read.’ THE HOUSE OF PARLIAMENT Although pre-scripted speeches and debates are a central part of Parliament, many of the exchanges are not scripted. Everything which is spoken is recorded in Hansard and this provides language students with interesting examples of political language in use. Much of the language is formulaic and traditional patterns are used time and time again.