Fundamentals of Language Analysis: Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics, Dispense di Lingua Inglese

Scarica Fundamentals of Language Analysis: Morphology, Syntax, and Semantics e più Dispense in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! -Coherence -> we understand the topic of a text -Cohesion -> the words are grammatically connected -Minimal texts -> short texts that are complete in terms of communicative meaning like for example KEEP OFF THE GRASS, KEEP LEFT, KEEP OUT, DANGER, EXIT -Headlines -> short sentences that are used to capture the reader’s attention and that resume the main point of a text like “Life on Mars - war of the words”. It is characterised by an ellipsis that is when words have been missed out and the omissions can be guessed from the context. “Life on Mars – war of the words” means «The Life on Mars debate remains a war of words». There is the dash to balance the two phrases «Life on Mars» «War of the words» and also the alliteration: «war» «words» that creates rhythm, prosody, and a sound effect. In this way the memorability of the headline is obtained. Sometimes is used also a larger or bolder typeface and also questions or commands in direct address to the consumers -Discourse -> The reader’s reconstruction of the writer’s intended message. It is the language above the sentence -Context -> the reader uses the context to understand a text. The context is made of the topic, the setting, the text type -Intertextuality -> every text is a mosaic of references to other texts or discourses. -Grammatical units -> meaningful elements which combine with each other in a structural pattern -Sentence: consists of one or more clauses “If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it” -Clause: consists of one or more phrases “Somebody else can dry it” -Phrase: consists of one or more words “Somebody else”, “can dry”, “it” -Word: consists of one or more morphemes “Somebody” -Morphemes: parts of words, i.e., stems, prefixes, and suffixes Some-body/ Headphones made by head, phone and S -Syntax: the way in which word combine to form larger units of meaning (phrases, clauses, sentences). For example, word order in a noun phrase, statements, or questions -Words are the basic elements of language. There are lexical words, function words and items. Newspaper writing has the highest density of lexical words, while conversation has the lowest. Conversation has more use of inserts than the other registers -Lexical words are the main carriers of information in a text or speech act They can be subdivided into: Nouns, Lexical verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs  They often have a complex internal structure and can be composed of several parts (un + friend + li + ness) -> ostilità  They can be heads (main words) of phrases  They are generally the words that remain if a sentence is compressed in a newspaper headline  They are open class: indefinitely large, and can be readily extended by users of the language (nouns, adjectives thanks to prefixes, suffixes, etc.) -Function words: • Prepositions • Determiners • Coordinators • Subordinators • Auxiliary verbs • Pronouns • Adverbial particles • They usually indicate meaning relationships and shows how the units are related to each other • They are closed class: contains a limited number of members, and new members cannot easily added Determiners:  They normally precede nouns, and are used to clarify the meaning of the noun  The definite article the indicates that the referent (i.e. whatever is referred to) is assumed to be known by the speaker and the person being spoken to (or addressee)  The indefinite article a or an makes it clear that the referent is one member of a class  Demonstrative determiners indicate that the referents are ‘near to’ o ‘away from’ the speaker’s immediate context (this, that, etc.)  Possessive determiners tell us who or what the noun belongs to (my, your, her, etc.)  Quantifiers specify how many or how much of the noun there is (every, some, etc.) Pronouns: • Pronouns fill the position of a noun or a whole noun phrase • Personal pronouns: refer to the speaker, the addressee(s), and other entities (more frequent than the other classes of pronouns) (I, you, etc.) • Demonstrative pronouns: refer to entities which are ‘near to’ or ‘away from’ the speaker’s context (this, that, etc.) • Reflexive pronouns: refer back to a previous noun phrase, usually the subject of the clause (myself, herself, etc.) • Reciprocal pronouns: like reflexive pronouns, refer to a previous noun phrase, but indicate that there is a mutual relationship (each other) -Nouns: a noun is a lexical word. There are Common nouns vs. proper nouns Morphological characteristics: • Nouns have inflectional suffixes for plural number and for genitive case (Many nouns are uncountable and cannot have a plural form: gold, information, etc.) • Nouns quite often contain more than one morpheme (compound nouns, nouns with derivational suffixes) Syntactic characteristics (what syntactic roles does a word play in phrases): Nouns can occur as the head of a noun phrase (A new book about the first world war) Common nouns can be modified by many kinds of words before and after them, while proper nouns rarely have any modifiers Semantic characteristics (type(s) of meaning that a word convey): • Nouns commonly refer to concrete entities e.g. book, friend, iron or denote abstract entities e.g. freedom, wish, friendship. -Lexical verbs: Morphological characteristics:  Different forms in tense (present and past), aspect (perfect, progressive), and voice (active and passive)  Often have more than one morpheme (multi-word verbs and derived verbs) Ex. bring up, rely on, look forward to, hyphenate, itemize, soften. Syntactic characteristics: • Lexical verbs most frequently are the central part of the clause • He [writes] page after page about tiny details Semantic characteristics:  LV denote actions, processes, and states of affairs that happen or exist in time Adjectives: an adjective is a word like big, new, quiet, expensive, beautiful. It describes something (it tells us what something is like). We can use it before a noun like “nice garden” or after a linking verb “this garden is nice”. There are some adjectives that we can use only before a noun like main, only, inner, indoor, outdoor and others that we can use only after a linking verb like asleep, awake, afraid, pleaded, glad. We can use also a noun as an adjective like a television programme, the garage door, a night club. There are some adjectives which we can use as nouns to talk about groups of people in society like the rich, the poor, the young, the hungry. The hungry means the hungry people. We can use more than one adjective before a noun. There is a specific order  Morphological characteristics:  Many adjectives can take the inflectional suffixes -er (comparative) and -est (superlative) dark - darker - darkest  They can be complex in morphology (compound adjectives; derived adjectives: -able, -ful, - ial)  derived adjectives: acceptable, forgetful, influential  compound adjectives: color-blind, home-made, ice-cold.  Syntactic characteristics: -Adjectives can occur as the head of an adjective phrase (eager to help, very dark, guilty of a crime) -Adjective and adjective phrases are most commonly used as modifiers preceding the head of a noun phrase, or as predicatives following the verb in clauses -modifier: Tomorrow could be [a sunny day]. -predicative: It's nice and warm in here. It's sunny. Semantic characteristics: • They describe the qualities of people, things, and abstractions • Many adjectives are gradable: they can be compared and modified for a degree or level of the quality Adverbs: Syntactic characteristics • Adverbs can occur as head of adverb phrases (very noisily, more slowly than I had expected) • They are often used as modifiers of an adjective or another adverb (really old, very soon) • Otherwise, they can act as adverbials in the clause (again soon) Semantic characteristics: They most often express the degree of a following adjective or adverb (totally wrong, right now) As elements of clauses, adverbs and adverb phrases have a wide range of meanings: They can modify an action, process, or state, by expressing such notions as time, place, and manner (I learned German quite quickly); They can convey the speaker’s or writer’s attitude towards the information in the rest of the clause (Surely that child’s not mine); They can express a connection with what was said earlier (It must be beautiful, though) VERBS: they provide the focal point of the clause and give sense to it. There are main verbs and auxiliary verbs: -Main verbs play a central role in clauses • They usually occur in the middle of a clause and determine the other clause elements -> Last year I went to Rome -Auxiliary verbs occur before a main verb and qualify the meaning of the main verb -> He could be (aux.) staying (main v.) there -3 major classes • Lexical verbs function as main verbs (run, eat, think) • Primary verbs (be, have, do) function both as auxiliary and main (lexical) verbs • Modal verbs (can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must) function as auxiliary verbs Semantic categories of lexical verbs: • Activity verbs (refer to an action performed intentionally by an agent -> ex. He goes to school. Bring, buy, come, follow, get, give, go, leave, make, meet, move, pay, play, put, run, show, take, try, use, work) • Communication verbs (involve communication activities -> ex. Mike asked me if I wanted to go shopping with him. Ask, call, claim, describe, offer, say, speak, suggest, talk, tell, write, thank) • Mental verbs (refer to mental states and activities, emotions, perceptions -> ex. I think I love you. Think, believe, know, love, want, see, taste, read, hear, feel, need, touch, study because I use my mind to do this) • Causative verbs (Indicate that some person or thing helps to bring about a new state of affairs -> This would help you to study. Allow, help, let, cause, require) • Verbs of occurrence (report events that occur without an actor -> ex. The light changed. Become, change, develop, die, grow, happen, occur) • Verbs of existence or relationship (report a state of existence or a logical relationship that exists between entities -> ex. He appeared relaxed/It contained water. Appear, contain, exist, include, indicate, involve, live, look, represent) • Verbs of aspect (characterize the state of progress of an event or activity. Ex -> He started doing his homework. Begin, continue, stop, start) -Verbs with multiple meaning Three different kinds of reduplication can be identified: 1. exact reduplication: papa, mama, goody-goody, so-so, hush-hush, never-never, tutu, fifty-fifty, hush-hush; 2. a reduplication in which the vowel alternates while the consonants are identical: crisscross, zig-zag, flip- flop, mish-mash, wishy-washy, clip-clop, riff-raff; achy-breaky, and 3. rhyme reduplication in which the consonants change while the vowel remains the same: hodge-podge, fuddy-duddy, razzle-dazzle, boogie-woogie, nitty-gritty, roly-poly, hob-nob, hocus-pocus. -Conversion or functional shift or zero derivation means that the word shifts to a different grammatical category without undergoing any morphological change like for example the addition of a suffix: a mail – to mail, a guess- to guess, a phone -to phone. In advertising the most frequent conversions consist in the shift from proper names to nouns like “When it really matters, Persil it” or brand names used as adjectives “Very Valentino” The most common functional shifts are: V > N (a) run, drive, walk, bruise, cut, look, call, dump, spy, bite, sneeze N > V (to) man, head, shoulder, telephone, lust, contact, ship, sign, skin, mail A > V (to) weary, better, empty, idle, dirty, bare, quiet, tame, lower A > N (a) daily, double, private, commercial, formal, red, elder, roast -Blending: it involves two processes that are compounding and clipping. Two free words are combined and blended, usually by eliminating the end of the first word and the beginning of the second word to create a new word that has a different meaning. Blends are sometimes called “portmanteau” words. Instead, in compound the two words are combined but we keep them. sm(oke) + (f)og > smog mo(tor) + (ho)tel > motel info(rmation) + (com)mercial > infomercial simul(taneous) + (broad)cast > simulcast trans(fer) + (re)sistor > transistor sky + (hi)jacker > skyjacker motor + (caval)cade > motorcade perma(nent) + frost > permafrost docu(mentary) + drama > docudrama para(chutist) + trooper > paratrooper film + (bi)ography > filmography -Back formation: In back formation, speakers derive a morphologically simple word from a form which they analyze, on the basis of derivational and inflectional patterns existing in English. For example, by analogy with the very common derivational pattern in English in which the agentive suffix -er is added to a verb to produce a noun (sing + -er > singer, work + -er > worker, buy + -er > buyer), verbs have been formed from the following nouns by the removal of an agentive suffix, as in sightseer – -er > sightsee, babysitter – -er > baby-sit, or typewriter – -er > typewrite. Since the nouns predate the verbs in these cases, we say that the verbs are “back-formed”. -Shortening The three types of shortening – acronyms, initialisms, and clipped forms – have in common the deletion of sound segments without respect to morphological boundaries. A clipping is the result of deliberately dropping part of a word, usually either the end or the beginning, or less often both, while retaining the same meaning and same word class: ad/advert < advertisement; mike < microphone; condo < condominium rehab < rehabilitation; fax < facsimile fan < fanatic -Saxon genitive: forms of the possessive associated with the APOSTROPHE (boy's, boys'). The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals. • 'Belonging to' or 'ownership' is one of the relationships it expresses: • John owns a car. ('John' is the possessor or owner) It is John's car. It can also express other relationships, for example: -where someone works or studies or spends time: John goes to this school. This is John's school. John sleeps in this room. This is John's room. -a family relationship: John's mother. The Queen's daughter -qualities: John's patience. The politician's hypocrisy. -The possessive is also used to refer to shops, restaurants, churches and colleges, using the name or job title of the owner. Examples: the grocer's, the doctor's Affixation main meaning(s) examples autobiagraphy, autograph auto self hi two bicentenary, bilingualism bio. oflivingthings biochemistry,biomass CA joint co-chairman, co-founder counter against counteract counterciaim di the opposite of disbelie$, discomfort se former @xMarat, ex-student fore. ahead, before forefront, foreknow/edge hyper: estreme Iyperinfation in inside, or the opposite of inpetient, inattention inter. between, among interaction, intermarriage filo a thousand kilobyte, kilowatt ma bed malfunction, malnutrition mega- a million, supreme megawatt, megastar min small minibus, mini- publication mis bad, wrong misconciuct, msmatch mono one monopoly, monosylable neo new neomansist, neo-colonialism nom not nonpayment, non-specialist out outside, separate ourpatient, outbuileing po many polysilable, polytcism re. again, back re-election, re-organization semi half semicirce, semi-darkness sub below subgroup, subset super more than, above, lorge superhero, supermarket. tele distant telephone, teleshopping te three trlole, tripartism ultra beyond uttrafilter, ultrasound undler- below, too lite underdias, underachievement vice deputy (second in command) _ vice-chairman, vice president Suffissi ® I suffissi sono usatî per la formazione di aggettivi, avverbi, sostantivi e verbi. Aggettivi e avverbi Significato del suffisso Esempi Sq possibilità capacità di cable drivkable (potabile), fastionable (alla moda) [Fic -He |responsibie (responsabile) appartenente 4 um certo ambito |-al musical (musicale) | cin ica | tisi (artistico), chemical (chimico) | relativo a lingua o nazione chi England > English (inglese) tipico di Beyish (giovanile), snabbish (snobistico) piuttosto longish (piuttosto lungo), |youngish (piuttosto giovane) dotato di una certa qualità fa 1 Using suffixes Suffixes are short additions t0 the end of hont — baviker, goverr > government Sometimes the spelling of the origine veard changes when a Sullix s acided: ovele + Ist cpelist, argue — argument Tar sa uainee doctor Fe he9es to be a consultant one das 2 Jobs, beliefs and languages Vers GR GUN AUF la PERSON veros bolo onm fan Wall sr Bur diver tsmion der ampio; ltencio cav Hai 0@ © ppne intime: pepe i ci eco instuci vivi sor edi calcator ins jr ape Asst CONSUT Stats cantlemt applicant aessteni cemuant Sten nouns (art Gale guitar jeu A artt Get getti joumaler d Noi all nouns that end in «er or ar describe people or jobs a cooker Co niachine {hat cooks things) a calculatar (= a machine that can add, etc.) ours chat end in eroften have an active meaning and nouns that end in -ee have a passive meaning. 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Pola Soain Turkey en Finish Politi Spi Tunksh Treze can also be ne as cun descrbino tonali: Mafia = 37 aan AA the names of some langue» do not follow thes pater Te Netherlands = Dutch, Cresce main meoninols) natioraliy, language, cl “ance acdior or sla of Ving, examples Am state of brina A torio, Rare, Vieeram assista, resemblente, dependenca,ciference, . se ant em a pin no Vs sometbing tti, conse side used tor Ving. coalant intaxfcant, fubricani. 9 soneerSualiyol bag AN Sono sce in fa dem ate obang An Sordo fede, sardo sore e 2 penon fado meeringo) atte diete Comino Gaio 81,-01 a porsontthing that vs, actor, aiar, fer teacher, visitor © pon conte lo sv Sfoss n persona pi e AatGnaiivoringuoge Chi nane forare di Steve NGee8!0) | sches barone ras tre Site Senato o ch cid amount le el box 4.42) Mono move sconti nocd sare ttaing Are chioggia, eos ian peso concenmi sit A Cin. mattoni sno, x ho spa su dd dopgi sot ing” sctennimae i Wing. Jeeg. etna. vendi: tig fo tri tm, vas, edi, in &m Hess morement eden srl clic. Cote rc CEE Folle TNA fm sped she cai vit eo ps die diinorialome of fatte, suscone Finto 49 ate orqualiyot tolga sl st den ani SE Rimani Somiin Poote of pile ment cen er ist i Van guire meter Fasi nem rane oraualiy Of being A Sinne, dirt fans happins SHE Rateorsat ot esing eh Fina embe Riechti en asini ina _ mato sito peso Se actomorimane o*W4ng___ it pati ipo pit Sostantivi Significato del suffisso Esempi processo ostato ape |brenkage (rta), sore Stoccaggio) ao, azione, processo dl eni] (vegzzione) condi . i 1 zione aste assenza) “ai can | sacany (posto ci evo libero, lane bora di albergo) Fencs enoo |atvence osczo) efficeney(etfcicnza) BE ratto fe Tonin Goldin) fp rain (relazione), ep (amici) Prefissi = Iprefissisi usano davanti ad aggettivi, sost ma senza alterare la categoria grammatica! verdi ecc.) Significato del prefisso stat tanti, verbi e avverbi per modificame il significato, le (gli aggettivi rimangono aggettivi, i verbi rimangono Esempi PIO! negativo (formazione di opposti) amabie (incapace), watt (Segare) anfortunate! (fortunatamente) è disbelief (incredulità), dishionest (disonesto), disinfect (disinfettare) decentalize (decentralizzare) impatient (impaziente), immoraliy (immoralità) ss JE] Inconverient (scomodo), Independent indipendente), inartenzion (disattenzione) Mega! (legale), ilegible (egibile), itrate (analfabeta) Nouns from verbs and adjectives ver E E sur orguo govem move (rca ment communicate educate produce | «fdion amine esplin info invite sation decidi alsrie «fgion ADIEENVE TUF Bino cerk tappy ness able active egual! nationel sy Glstami Fancrant finpontane dante vence |) egular (irregolare), response (responsa = NOUN re arquinan?. goveriment movement Teatmuit communicaion eMucalion prodiuman siarninanon Silanatiai information initeton decision discussion NOUN hileahess: gerkoess. hapciness abili act: egualiy nasicnalità distance ioncrence. importance dfirence independenco sferra VMress