Organizational behavior 1st Midterm CLABE, Appunti di Organizzazione Aziendale

Scarica Organizational behavior 1st Midterm CLABE e più Appunti in PDF di Organizzazione Aziendale solo su Docsity! 1 Ch. 1 – Managing Organiza�onal Behaviour Basic model of behavior The basic model of behaviour is a func�on of the person and the environment. The environment contains the many elements that exist in the world outside the person that may trigger behavior; it interacts with the atributes of the person, which also explain and govern behavior. Actual behavior refers to an overt act of the person that can be observed and measured, but it tells us litle about why it occurred. From a manager’s perspec�ve, behavior is important because of its consequences, both intended and unintended. A person can earn from their behavior and its effects. Also, behavior can change the environment. The context of 21st century organiza�onal behavior Some of the challenges that managers will face in the future will come from: • Changing economy During the 1960s and 1970s, decline in the compe��veness of the manufacturing sector ( need to increase quality at reduced costs  companies winning concessions from unions with respect to work rules ad wages), offset by the growth of the service sector (greater number of entry-level workers, lower-wage posi�ons and number of part-�me employees). In addi�on to this, we have seen the globaliza�on of business and that the new economy is increasingly technology-driven. • Changing workforce Workforce diversity in terms of gender, ethnic, racial composi�on, etc has changed the face of out organiza�ons and workforce will become even more diverse over the next years. There will also be a significant in crease in the average age of workforce, that will lead to a decrease in the working-age popula�on and thus to poten�al labor shortages. Finally, in the last 40 years there have been substan�al changes in work values, as different genera�ons entered the job market. • Changes in organiza�ons and the way they are managed Technological revolu�on, driven by advances in computer technology, led to the crea�on of virtual organiza�ons and telecommu�ng, with employees that can complete many or all tasks from their home. One result of the increased use of technology to complete work is leaner organiza�onal structures; many firms have flatened the organiza�onal structure (elimina�ng one or more layers of management in the hierarchy) and therefore increased delega�on of responsibility and authority at lower levels. The field of organiza�onal behavior Organiza�onal behavior is the systema�c and scien�fic analysis of individuals, groups, and organiza�ons; its main purpose is to understand, predict, and improve the performance of individuals and the organiza�ons in which they work. It applies theory and research from psychology, sociology and managerial theory. Effec�ve managers are those that have a significant knowledge of the fundamental aspects of human behavior and who rely on theories developed over significant experience (not necessarily their own). The development of economic sciences and management prac�ces began around the start of the 17th century; organiza�onal behavior can trace its roots to the beginning of the late 19th century. 4 approaches to management started then: 2 • Scien�fic management Focused on the lowest level of organiza�on: the worker and the boss. How can the job be designed most efficiently? Taylor is known as the father of scien�fic management. • Administra�ve theory By the late 1920s a number of writers began to analyze the work of managers, developing principles of management which are general guides that tell a manger what to do when faced with recurring types of problems. Principles of management were developed for nearly every phase of the managerial task. • Industrial psychology The industrial psychology movement began to grow at about the same �me of the scien�fic management one. During the recruitment of personnel for WWI an early atempt of including psychological techniques to improve these processes. • Human rela�ons perspec�ve This behavioral perspec�ve was the first widely recognized approach to atempt to u�lize the broader range of human poten�al and to suggest ways to do this. How people are treated makes an important difference in performance. Contemporary organiza�onal behavior took roots in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Following logically from prior works, two dis�nct approaches to the study of human behavior in organiza�ons emerged around this �me: organiza�onal theory (focus on organiza�ons as unit of analysis) and organiza�onal behavior (more concerned with the individual and the group as object of study). Organiza�onal theory is concerned with how organiza�ons are structured and how they can be designed to operate more effec�vely to achieve objec�ves in a “ra�onal” way. It looks at organiza�onal problems rather than at individual problems. Lawrence and Lorsch concluded that organiza�ons in a stable environment are more effec�ve if they have a more detailed procedures and a more centralized decision-making process, while organiza�ons in an unstable environment should have decentraliza�on, par�cipa�on, and less emphasis on rules and standard procedures to be effec�ve. Organiza�onal behavior. McGregor said that most managers make incorrect assump�ons (Theory X, assuming that people were lazy, with personal goals which ran counter to the organiza�on ones, and that because of this, people had to be controlled externally) about those who work for them. Theory Y assump�ons were based on greater trust in others. He suggested that there was litle need for rigid organiza�on or interpersonal controls. Agryris argued that the bureaucra�c form of organiza�on is incongruent with the needs of a “healthy individual” and that it trats lower organiza�onal members like children. Likert proposed that managers would be most effec�ve using a suppor�ve approach. They must create a work environment in which the individual sees his experiences as contribu�ng to and maintaining his sense of personal worth and importance. Managing organiza�onal performance A person contributes more to the organiza�on than simply performing assigned tasks. We define performance in terms of the result hat managers must obtain to keep the firm viable as an economic en�ty. This view of performance includes 3 dimensions: • Task performance dimension: set of ac�vi�es and their result that you must do to accomplish the work • Contextual performance dimension: it reflects the extent to which you are willing to go beyond the norms of performance and involvement of your work role (contribute to the effec�veness of the organiza�on or of co- workers, doing more than just “your job”) 5 2. Nega�ve affec�vity (similar to neuro�cism; not very happy, focus on failure, view yourself and others in nega�ve ways) These two traits are independent: a person might be high on both, low on both, or high on one trait and low on the other. If you are high on posi�ve affec�vity, you are less likely to have accidents on work, more likely to have good performance and to have higher management poten�al. • Machiavellianism High Machiavellians have high self-esteem and self-confidence and behave in their own self-interest. They are cool and calcula�ng to take advantage of others. Truly high-Mach people have no guilt: they detach themselves from the consequences of their ac�ons. • Locus of control People can be characterized according to their locus of control (whether they believe what happens to them is externally controlled or whether it is controlled internally by their own efforts. Person with external locus of control  believes that others control important outcomes Person with internal locus of control  believes that they have self-control over their outcomes Rules, policies and management controls can interact with the locus of control and affect mo�va�on. • Myers-Briggs personality dimensions People are classified according to the kinds of jobs and interac�ons they prefer, and the ways in which they approach problems. Each dimension forms a con�nuum that people fall along. 1. Sensing-intui�on Sensing-oriented people like structured situa�ons, realism, precise and uncomplicated details. Intui�ve people prefer new problems, dislike repe��on and rou�ne. They follow their inspira�on and jump to conclusions. 2. Thinking-feeling 3. Introversion-extroversion 4. Percep�ve-judgement Percep�ve people adapt to change and welcome new ideas. They can leave things unsolved and delay decisions, start too many new projects, … Judgment types prefer to plan work and follow the plan. They setle thing on just the essen�als and are sa�sfied with conclusions. They dislike switching off a project in progress. People can be taught when it is best to exert their different dimensions. They can also learn when it is best to pair with each other to improve decision-making (“mutual usefulness of opposites”). Personality in organiza�onal se�ngs How people accommodate to work situa�ons (so-called “organiza�onal personality orienta�ons”): • Organiza�onalists They have a strong commitment to the place of work. Strong iden�fica�on with the organiza�on, low tolerance for ambiguity about goals and assignments, iden�fica�on with superiors and desire to advance, respect for authority, emphasis on efficiency and effec�veness. • Professionals They are job-centered – not organiza�on centered. They have to deal with organiza�ons but they would prefer to avoid it (for example so�ware programmers). Highly ideological about work values, some�mes feel organiza�onal authority as nonra�onal, feel that their skills are not fully u�lized, seek recogni�on especially from other professionals outside the organiza�on 6 • Indifferents They are people who work for pay. Work is not a cri�cal part of their life structure. They might be good at their job but they are not highly commited to it or to the organiza�on. More oriented toward leisure, seek sa�sfac�on outside the work organiza�on, tends to be alienated from work, rejects status symbols in organiza�ons. The mature personality in organiza�ons Some believe that there is o�en a fundamental conflict between the mature personality and the demands that organiza�ons place on employees. As people mature, they go from being passive to ac�ve, develop toward independence and more complex behaviors. Many managerial prac�ces are inconsistent with the mature personality. Jobs are frequently repe��ve, and most of the things that involve judgment and maturity are done by managers. This makes employees feel dependent, controlled and pressured to be passive rather than ac�ve at work. Frustra�ng condi�ons o�en get worse: as employees react defensively, managers become more direc�ve. The situa�on feeds on itself. Ability Like personality, people differ in abili�es. Ability is the capacity to carry out a set of interrelated behavioral or mental sequences to produce a result. There is a gene�c component and a learned component to ability. We discuss 4 classes of ability: 1. Cogni�ve ability (or cogni�ve intelligence) Capacity to understand complicated ideas, to reason, to learn, to think, and to process informa�on. There are different aspects to it: language ability, mathema�cal ability, reasoning or deduc�ve skill, capacity to remember. 2. Emo�onal intelligence It refers o the skills to manage your own feelings as well as the feelings of others. It is composed of 4 components: • ability to perceive emo�on • ability to access and generate emo�ons to assist thought • ability to understand emo�ons and emo�onal meanings • ability to regulate emo�ons to promote beter emo�on and thought 3. Perceptual ability Percep�on is the way that we organize informa�on about people and things, the atribu�on of proper�es to them on the basis of the informa�on and the way we make cause/effect atribu�ons about them. A person high in perceptual ability can comprehend complex paterns, also in situa�ons where the rela�onships are confused. 4. Psychomotor ability Physical skills. They include manual dexterity, physical coordina�on and strength. 7 Ch. 3 – A�tudes and Accommoda�on To Work A�tudes can have a significant effect on the behavior of a person at work. Employee sa�sfac�on and a�tudes represent one of the key areas of measuring organiza�onal effec�veness. Fundamentals of work a�tudes A�tudes are propensi�es, or tendencies to react in a favorable or unfavorable way toward an object. A�tudes toward supervision, pay, benefits, promo�on, or anything that might trigger posi�ve or nega�ve reac�ons will very likely affect a person’s behavior and, as a result, an employee’s sa�sfac�on. Because of the links that it has with organiza�onal effec�veness, one of the key goals of managers should be to create linkages between employee performance and their sa�sfac�on. A�tudes and sa�sfac�ons at work can and do change, some�mes quickly. Many organiza�ons conduct periodic a�tude surveys of employees. A�tudes perform some useful psychological func�ons for people: • They provide a frame of reference from which to interpret our world (we are likely to select those facts that are consistent with our a�tudes and ignore those that are not) • People express values through their a�tudes. Words and ac�ons demonstrate our values • They help protect our ego (e.g. a supervisor has feelings of superiority regarding subordinates; an a�tude that subordinates are lazy will tend to enhance the supervisor’s feeling of superiority) • A�tudes can facilitate reconciling internal (personal) contradic�ons, by compartmentaliza�on of inconsistent beliefs, behaviors or a�tudes • A�tudes aid in personal adjustment (we tend to develop a�tudes consistent with those parts of our life we find sa�sfying or dissa�sfying; e.g. worker may be more favourable to poli�cal par�es that support higher wages) A model of a�tudes A�tudes are �ed to values and beliefs and they precede inten�ons to behave and actual behavior. A�tudes can be understood more easily if they are viewed in terms of their components and their dynamics: • The affec�ve component The affec�ve component is the emo�onal tone generated by or toward the object of the a�tude. It means that we have some preference toward the object. • The object of a�tudes A�tudes always apply to some iden�fiable object. It is not accurate to say someone has a good or bad a�tude without specifying the object of the a�tude. • The cogni�ve component The things that we observe in the world around us and that we associate (posi�vely or nega�vely) with the object of the a�tude are the cogni�ve dimensions of the a�tude. They are the things that leads us to develop the affec�ve component. 10 organiza�onalist, the professional, and the indifferent. The three coexist, but one will be dominant over the others (it may change over �me). There are different mo�va�ons for sustaining the iden�fica�on you have with an organiza�on, regardless of your organiza�onal personality: • Con�nuance commitment: you stay in an organiza�on because you feel you cannot afford to leave (for pay, reputa�on or other reasons); • Affec�ve commitment: you iden�fy strongly with the organiza�on because it stands for what you stand for and you believe in its goals; • Norma�ve commitment: you stay with an organiza�on because of pressures from others in your life who think you should be there. Obviously, when the basis of commitment is not consistent with the organiza�onal personality orienta�on, you can expect some uneasiness and stress to occur. (See table page 50) Companies would like to see a high level of organiza�onal commitment because it is related to lower turnover and absenteeism. 11 Ch. 4 – Individual Percep�on, Judgement, and Atribu�on The individual processes of percep�on, judgement, and atribu�on are cri�cal elements of making wise managerial decisions. Fundamentals of percep�on Percep�on is the psychological process of crea�ng an internal picture of the external world. It is the way that we organize informa�on about people and things, the atribu�on of proper�es to them and the way we make cause/effect atribu�ons about them. It is a process of interpre�ng what informa�on our senses provide to us as to give meaning to the environment we are in. This interpreta�on isn’t always an accurate one. The way we perceive is learned, and is affected by what we learn. Selec�on is the heart of the perceptual process: out of the many s�muli that bombard people, only a few actually penetrate and become part of their experience and are used in making judgments. Selec�on is driven by mul�ple elements. Perceptual organiza�on. Informa�on ha an expected patern that we have learned from our past experiences. These paterns are called schemas. As you are exposed to informa�on in the environment, you tend to group certain s�muli into paterns, so that they become meaningful wholes rather than fragmented parts. The way that are grouped depends on your schemas. Physical and emo�onal states (e.g. being hungry, or shocked) can also shape and determine our reality, distor�ng our percep�on. Certain atributes of events and objects affect whether and how they are perceived: • Size • Intensity (loud noises, shining objects, …) • Contrast effects (if something stands out against its background) • Ambiguity (ambiguous or incomplete events are more subject to personal interpreta�on) • Characteris�cs of other people (higher-status people are more likely to be no�ced and to be perceived more accurate and believable) Situa�onal effects: percep�ons occur in a context, which predisposes us to expect certain events and changes how we interpret, judge, and react. Under different condi�ons, the same cues can easily result in different percep�ons. Percep�ons can also be affected by the presence of another person (if your boss cri�cizes you in front of others you have a different percep�on than if it was doing it just without other people present). Judgement biases and errors There are several human tendencies that lead to inaccurate or unreliable judgments. • First impressions Strong and las�ng impressions of others tend to be formed very early in a rela�onship. 2 reasons why first impressions are so strong: principle of closure (we need a rela�vely complete idea about things) and principle of consistency (concep�on should be congruent with other a�tudes, percep�ons and beliefs). When we meet someone, we focus on those cues that strike us as important and then use these as a basis for comple�ng our picture of the person, that becomes difficult to change when we receive new informa�on. • Halo: one characteris�c tells all Halo effect: the use of one or a few characteris�cs of a person to affect the evalua�on of other characteris�cs. 12 It is likely to be related to our own self-image. We tend to have very posi�ve evalua�ons of those who possess characteris�cs we believe we have. • Projec�on Projec�on is a psychological mechanism by which people atribute their own traits to others. Some�mes the trait is one that we like in ourselves, some�mes one that we dislike in ourselves. If other do not possess what we project onto them, our behavior is governed by the false impression. • Implicit personality theory When linking together two characteris�cs of a person, we are crea�ng our own implicit personality theory. Any of these linkages could be wrong (e.g. “late sleepers are lazy”, “honest people are also hard-working”). • Stereotyping In stereotyping, we link characteris�cs of people to characteris�cs of a group with which we associate them. It helps us to organize the world around us but it’s o�en fed by prejudices and ambiguity that are o�en embedded in society. It is a fact that members of groups do share certain values and beliefs, however, these generaliza�ons require qualifica�on and have to be carefully stated. Atribu�on theory: finding causes of behavior It is in human nature to want to explain the causes of our own and others’ behavior. An unexplainable event can leave us in a state of dissonance. Trying to explain the causes of an event is an atempt of reducing the dissonance and to decide how to react to the event. Atribu�on theory explains why and how we determine these causes. • Judging other people’s behavior Fundamental attribution error: when judging others, we have a strong tendency to atribute causes of behavior to the internal characteris�cs of the person ( overes�ma�ng the role of the person and underes�ma�ng he situa�on as a cause of behavior). If you believe that the other person has free choice, you are more likely to atribute casualty to him; if you view an ac�on as important (or it affects you), you are more likely to atribute internal mo�ves to him. Factors that affect our attributions about others: 1. Consistency If a person behaves in the same way in similar situa�ons, we see behavior as internally mo�vated 2. Dis�nc�veness If a behavior is more dis�nc�ve (unique to a situa�on), we don’t see it as internally mo�vated 3. Consensus When a person behaves differently than others, we see behavior as internally mo�vated 4. Privacy of the act Ac�ons taken in absence of other people are o�en seen as internally mo�vated (since we think that they aren’t mo�vated by social pressure) 5. Status Higher-status people are seen to be more personally responsible for their ac�ons We o�en make the fundamental atribu�on error and other judgement biases because we use automa�c informa�on-processing, recognizing some key informa�on or s�mulus and recalling schemas (see above) to fill and complete our judgment. To avoid this, it is necessary to use a controlled informa�on-processing approach (pause and reflect on the situa�on, on the person; it may need to search more informa�on). 15 1. Physiological needs are the basic requirements for survival. 2. Safety needs (for survival) 3. Belonging needs reflect the person’s desire for love, affec�on and belonging, interac�ng with others and have some social acceptance and approval 4. Esteem needs are those human desires to be respected by others and for a posi�ve self-image 5. Self-actualiza�on needs are the individual’s desire to do what they have the poten�al of doing. Unsa�sfied needs are what the person is concerned about. Higher-order needs become important only when lower-order ones are at least par�ally sa�sfied. Once a need is sa�sfied, the person is concerned with the one above. o Erg theory It’s similar to Maslow’s theory, but there are 3, not 5, basic need categories: 1. Existence needs (physiological and security needs for material things) 2. Relatedness needs (security needs for interpersonal maters, love and belonging needs) 3. Growth needs (need to confirm personal esteem and self-actualiza�on) The less relatedness needs are fulfilled, the more existence needs will be desired. The less growth needs are fulfilled, the more relatedness needs will be desired.  a person deprived of higher-order needs does not have the poten�al to sa�sfy them and he/she will focus on lower-order needs and regress on the need hierarchy. 2. Herzberg’s two-factor theory It is problema�c to translate need theory into managerial prac�ce since a par�cular need may be sa�sfied in different ways for different people. Before, it was assumed that if a person was dissa�sfied with part of the job (e.g. pay) only improving that factor was to be done. Herzberg concluded instead that there are two sets of factors that affect people in the workplace: o Hygiene factors Hygiene factors create dissa�sfac�on if they are not present. If they are present in a job se�ng, dissa�sfac�on will be lower, but sa�sfac�on will not be high. They are associated with the context of a job (rela�onships with peers and supervisors, salary, working condi�ons, company policy, …). Providing fringe benefits and nice offices will minimize dissa�sfac�on and keep people in the organiza�on, but won’t lead to higher mo�va�on or beter performance. o Mo�va�ng factors Mo�va�ng factors create high sa�sfac�on and willingness to work harder. When they are present, they result in more effort, but if they are absent, it will not produce dissa�sfac�on in most people. They are associated with the content of the job (responsibility, achievement, the work itself, growth opportuni�es). To improve performance managers must work on the mo�vators (changing the nature of the work to make it more challenging and intrinsically rewarding. 3. The job characteris�cs approach Herzberg’s work has been the subject of much research and controversy but it directed aten�on to the work itself. Job characteris�cs (or job design) approach: the nature of the work itself is a factor that affects mo�va�on and performance. There are 4 key elements: 16 1. Work outcomes are the result of the work ac�vi�es: internal work mo�va�on, quality of work (resul�ng from people having meaningful jobs), job sa�sfac�on, absenteeism and turnover. 2. Cri�cal psychological states are what give the person a kick out of doing the work when performing well in a job: meaningfulness of work, experienced responsibility for outcomes, knowledge of results. 3. Core job characteris�cs are those necessary to determine the cri�cal psychological states of point 2: skill variety, task iden�ty, task significance, autonomy, feedback. 4. Growth need strength is the extent to which a person desires to advance, to be in a challenging posi�on and to achieve. It determines how these job characteris�cs affect the person. If you have a high growth need strength, you are more likely to experience internal mo�va�on, sa�sfac�on, low absenteeism, etc. 4. McClelland’s achievement-power theory McClelland developed a model useful in understanding leadership. There are 3 needs or mo�ves. For a par�cular person, one of these will be dominant (highest posi�on in their hierarchy) and it will have the strongest effect on behavior. 1 and 2 are the most important. 1. Need for achievement Is the extent to which success is important and valued by a person. If you have a high achievement mo�ve you want to succeed in everything. Successful entrepreneurs have high achievement mo�ves. 2. Need for power Is the need to have an impact on others, to establish, maintain, or restore personal pres�ge or power. It was discovered that many top-level execu�ves did not have high achievement mo�va�on but instead high power mo�ves. This is not posi�ve! It can result in strong aggressive ac�on towards others, try to control or impress them, act in ways that result in strong emo�ons in others, etc. Power mo�ve can take one of two different forms: • Personalized power (adversarial): person-to-person compe��on in which they can dominate. Life is seen as a win-lose game, the strong survive destroying the weak. These persons are high in power mo�ve but low in self-control. • Socialized power: exercise power for the good of others, carefully plan conflicts, know that someone’s win is another person’s loss. They have self-control and prefer a more disciplined expression of their power mo�va�on. People with strong socialized power mo�ves, low affilia�on needs and high self-control have a configura�on of mo�ves called the “leader patern mo�ve”. 3. Need for affilia�on Mo�va�on: the process theories Process theories of mo�va�on focus on how behavior change occurs, or how a person comes to act in a different way. There is less emphasis on the specific factors (or “content”) that cause behavior. (Focus is on the possible ways of changing a behavior) 1. Reinforcement theory It is one of the most important and complicated mo�va�on theories. It is useful to managers to understand how rewarding or punishing behavior affects performance and sa�sfac�on. 2 key concepts: o Types of reinforcement consequences Each different type has a different effect on the probability of behavior recurring. 1. Posi�ve reinforcement occurs when desirable consequences are associated with a behavior. A posi�ve reinforcer increases the likelihood that the behavior will recur in the future. (Use of rewards) 17 2. Nega�ve reinforcement occurs when an undesirable consequence is removed. It also increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur again. (Follow a certain behavior to avoid nega�ve consequences) 3. Punishment can take two forms. Nega�ve (undesirable) consequences can be applied to a response, or posi�ve (desirable) consequences can ac�vely be taken away. 4. Ex�nc�on is another way to change behavior. It involves stopping a previously established reinforcer (posi�ve or nega�ve) that is maintaining the behavior. Managers should be careful with this: employee must not learn that good behaviors have just litle or no consequences. o Reinforcement schedules They refer to the �ming and frequency with which consequences are associated with behavior. They affect how long it takes to learn a new behavior. 1. Con�nuous reinforcement schedule: a response is reinforced (or punished) each �me it occurs. E.g. an instructor when someone is learning a new job (each �mes says “ok” or “wrong”) 2. Fixed-interval reinforcement schedule: a response is reinforced a�er a fixed amount of �me. This results in irregular performance rate (at their highest level when reinforcement has just occurred). E.g. pay is generally given at a regular �me. 3. Variable-interval reinforcement schedule: the period of �me between reinforcements is not constant. E.g. supervisors o�en visit work sites at irregular intervals. 4. Fixed-ra�o reinforcement schedule: a certain number of responses must occur before a reinforcement follows. E.g. a worker that is paid extra per unit produced. 5. Variable-ra�o reinforcement schedule: the number of behaviors necessary for a reinforcement varies. The reinforcement occurs at unpredictable �mes and sustains behavior over long period (= high and steady rate of response). E.g. managers reward irregularly (e.g. also using loteries). One approach to changing behavior is called behavior shaping. It involves reinforcing small increments of behavior that are in the direc�on of the desired behavior un�l this is achieved. 2. Expectancy theory The basic idea of expectancy theory is that you will work to do those things that will lead you to the result that you desire. It’s a ra�onal approach that implies that people can make an assessment of costs or benefits of the different alterna�ves. What you do depends on personal preference for certain outcome an expecta�on about those outcomes. An expectancy is an individual’s es�mate of the likelihood that some outcome will occur. It is a probability es�mate that can range from 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain). 2 kinds of expectancies: o Effort-performance expectancy (E  P) is the person’s belief about the level of effort made and the performance that it will lead to (e.g. rela�onship between “how hard I work to sell” and “how much I sell”) o Performance-outcome expectancy (PO) is the expecta�on that achieving a given level of work performance will lead to certain outcomes (e.g. certain rewards). This performance-reward linkage is important for a person to make an effort. Not all outcomes are equally valued by a person: the strength of the person’s preferences is called valence. Valences are the different degrees of pleasantness or unpleasantness of outcomes. 20 Ch. 6 – Group and Team Performance In countless organiza�ons work is o�en organized in teams, especially in modern workplaces. In this chapter we review what we know about group and team effec�veness. The fundamentals of groups and teams The concept of group is broader than the concept of team (but in this chapter we use the two interchangeably). A group is defined as two or more people who interact and are dependent upon each other to achieve some common objec�ve. A team is a special form of group that as highly defined tasks and roles, and demonstrate high group commitment. People may join groups for a variety of reasons, however, in many organiza�ons, individuals have litle choice about the groups and teams to which they are assigned. • Personal characteris�cs It is much easier to interact with those who share our a�tudes: it permits us to confirm our beliefs and deal with others with minimal conflicts. • Interests and goals Shared goals that require coopera�on are a powerful force behind group forma�on. Manager o�en organize employees around func�ons (sales, produc�on, …) • Poten�al to influence The work group knows that a manager might be more prone to listen when any complaint is coming from “us” instead of “me”. One formal group found in many organiza�ons are unions. • Opportunity for interac�on Individuals o�en form groups just because their jobs force them to be in close contact with others. Physical proximity and interac�on permit rela�onships like these to develop and this can lead to friendships and group forma�on. There are 3 main types of groups: 1. Formal groups Formal groups are created as part of the formal organiza�on structure. o Functional group: formed by individuals who accomplish similar tasks within the organiza�onal structure. Func�onal groups exist for an unspecified period of �me (accoun�ng, produc�on, sales, …) o Task group: used to accomplish a specific organiza�onal goal. Task groups usually have a defined purpose, deadlines to meet, specific work assignments, and a repor�ng rela�onship in the organiz. 2. Informal groups informal groups arise out of individual needs and the atrac�on of people to one another. These groups, even if they develop outside of managerial control, can have a significant effect on organiza�onal performance. Membership is usually voluntary and based on common values and interests. Managers should atempt to work with these groups so that they can contribute to, rather than subvert, organiza�onal goals. 3. Virtual teams Virtual teams are comprised of geographically or organiza�onally dispersed members that collaborate using electronic and digital tools. Group development One factor that may strongly influence the effec�veness of a group is the level of group maturity. Like individuals, some groups are slower to mature and some never reach full maturity. 21 Mature groups have the following characteris�cs: 1. The group accepts feelings in a non-evalua�ve way 2. Members disagree over real and important issues 3. Members make decisions ra�onally and do not force other members or fake unanimity 4. All members have awareness of the process 5. Members understand the nature of their involvement To achieve maturity, groups must go through certain stage of development: 1. Forming Ge�ng organized. Ini�al group ac�vi�es seek to define the purposes of the group and begin to establish its ac�vi�es and priori�es. Generally polite environment, as there is litle to disagree about. 2. Storming The politeness of the forming stage con�nues un�l the group faces the issues of group structure (including roles of individual members). Some groups never make it through the conflict stage. 3. Norming If a group resolves these conflicts, individuals will feel more cohesive and a sense of liking and trust will develop. In this stage group members accept performance standards, norms, and their individual roles. 4. Performing If a group survives to early stages its members move into the performing stage, dealing with problems concerning the structure of the group. Communica�on increases and the needs of individuals are more freely expressed. It is rare to see a fully mature group. Team effec�veness issues Within organiza�ons, there are several factors that could influence group or team success. Many of those are outside of the control of the members. 1. Task design It refers to the nature of the work assigned to the group or team. One component is the clarity of the goals and tasks (just as in individual goal-se�ng, performance is improved when there are specific and difficult goals), and another is the level of coordina�on that the group must have with others (interdependence is the amount of coordina�on or approval with others that the team needs to complete its tasks; autonomy is the degree of freedom and independence that the team has to conduct its ac�vi�es). 2. Reward structure Does the organiza�on have a system of rewards to encourage coopera�on? It is debated whether individual rewards or team rewards should be used. 3. Training Even though a lot of ac�vi�es are organized into groups, many people lack the skills necessary to be effec�ve team members (because of lack of experience or different cultural backgrounds). Training programs can include team-building ac�vi�es to build confidence and trust between team members, conflict resolu�on skills, etc. 4. Group size and composi�on Factors such as group size and member diversity are important factors that influence overall group effec�veness. A small group has 4 to 15 members. Fewer than 10 people can conduct a discussion quite adequately; in larger groups there is less opportunity to par�cipate and individuals become less involved and withhold their ideas (the amount of �me available to a person to talk is reduced). There should be and odd number of members to avoid deadlocks. Also, in smaller groups it is easier for members to feel they contributed to the group’s success. Homogeneous groups may have less conflicts but they may also be limited in crea�vity and innova�on, if compared to heterogeneous groups. Heterogeneous groups may be less efficient in the short term but may improve performance in the long term. 22 Group processes 2 of the processes that occur within groups and teams that can also influence their success are: • Development of norms Norms are reflec�ons of the “oughts” and “shoulds” of life, both inside and outside the organiza�on (they are expecta�ons about behavior and involvement in the group). They develop and become strong in the norming stage of group development. Norms provide groups with control and predictability. A norm’s power to control us depends on how we feel about the consequences of viola�ng it. Many work groups norms revolve around produc�vity: a norm can put lower and upper produc�vity limits; a ratebuster is an individual who performs at a level higher than the group will tolerate. • Development of group cohesiveness Group cohesiveness is the degree to which members of a group are atracted to on another and to group membership and can resist threats. Cohesive groups can exert a great deal of power and influence over members. Highly cohesive members will respond more readily to demands, however groupthink (tendency to not cri�cize the ideas and sugges�ons of other members) could be a problem. Members of cohesive groups are more sa�sfied and these groups have a high degree of success in achieving their goals (those may not always be consistent with the organiza�on’s goals). Factors that foster group cohesiveness: 1. Group forma�on Condi�ons leading to group forma�on. When people are similar and feel the goals of the group. Cohesiveness is increased when there are difficult entry requirements since an elite a�tude can develop. 2. Group success When a group achieves a meaningful and shared goal, cohesiveness usually increases. 3. External threat Cohesiveness can increase when group members perceive an external threat to member goals and interests. 4. Fair rewards alloca�on Cohesiveness is facilitated when rewards are allocated fairly. Vice versa, when a member is given rewards inconsistent with what others may feel he or she deserves, cohesiveness suffers. Group dynamics As groups develop there are forces, or dynamics, that can influence both individual and subgroup behavior and overall effec�veness. Members of a group have choices about whether to cooperate or compete with other members. Typically, the whole group can benefit from cooperation (more than just helping: it includes giving support to others, etc). Some�mes coopera�on occurs as a direct result of how tasks are designed. Some groups also experience competition; members become more concerned with their own welfare, some�mes at the expense of others. Compe��on could encourage group member behavior that are not in focus with group or organiza�onal goals. Compe��on can also lead to some benefits. Salespeople o�en compete among each other in rewards in rewards programs that lead to improved performance. Several factors can �lt individuals and groups toward either compe��on or coopera�on: • Individual differences affect a person’s tendencies toward coopera�on or compe��on. People high in achievement needs are also highly compe��ve (on average, man more then women). In some situa�ons, compe��on is the norm (in sports or in business). 25 3. Garbage can model The organiza�on is viewed as a fluid structure in which people, problems, and solu�ons flow together and apart at different �mes; decisions result from a disorderly convergence of these elements, heavily determined by paterns of �ming and opportuni�es. This model is most likely to operate when goals and methods for achieving them are ambiguous, organiza�onal units are loosely linked together, etc. Sometimes ideas are solutions in search of a problem. Goals are established to jus�fy decisions already made rather than the reverse (e.g. manufacturing manager wants some new equipment he saw at a trade show, so he will be sensi�ve to opportuni�es that allow him to buy it). Improving individual decision-making Prevent the process of problem selec�on from being dominated by our percep�ons or just by the order in which problem arise. Remember things of chapter 4 about atribu�on theory. Nothing is a problem un�l someone calls it. The defini�on of something as a problem is very subjec�ve. Work to have an accurate defini�on of your problem (inves�gate any event that might be related to it). Avoid to jump prematurely into solu�ons before the problem is completely defined. Link back your solu�on to the problem (go back to the defini�on of your problem and see if the solu�on matches it). The norma�ve model tells us to generate and examine all possible solu�ons in an exhaus�ve manner, and to es�mate the probabili�es and values of all possible outcomes. Solu�ons evalua�on is improved if you know your personal tendencies. An important prac�ce is to separate idea genera�on from idea evalua�on. If you like an alterna�ve, you might just stop your search there. In addi�on to dealing with issues directly related to decision implementa�on, some dysfunc�onal tendencies may occur a�er a decision has been made: • Post-decisional dissonance: a�er a decision has been made, people may waver and hesitate • Perceptual errors ad cogni�ve dissonance: if people are disposed toward a decision, they may ignore informa�on that suggests the decision is not working. • Escala�on of commitment: people may take a decision and then s�ck to it over �me, even if it is a bad decision (not to admit they made an error, to appear competent and consistent). The prac�ce of system thinking is useful I resolving problems that occur throughout the decision-making process. It focuses on how the issue being studied interacts with the other components of the system. Improving group decision-making To a large degree, the success of a group depends on the skill of the leader. Compared to individuals, groups have more knowledge and can generate a larger number of approaches to a problem. Group par�cipa�on can increase the level of commitment to execute a decision. A disadvantage of group decision-making lies in social pressure for conformity. The majority can suppress good minority ideas, or desire for consensus can silence disagreement. Not every decision can, or should, be made by a group. Under what condi�ons is it best to use a group? • Quality and acceptance criteria Quality of a decision refers to the feasibility and technical aspects of a problem. Acceptance of a decision deals with feelings, needs and emo�ons and is subjec�ve in nature. Whenever acceptance is cri�cal, the manager must at least consider using a group for the decision-making process, as unilateral decisions by the manager run the risk of being misunderstood or rejected. 26 • The Vroom-Yeton model They propose different types of decision making. At one extreme unilateral decision-making by the manager; at the other extreme par�cipa�ve decision- making where the manager only provides informa�on and lets the group determine its own solu�on. a) You make the decision alone with currently available data b) You make the decision alone but using data from subordinates c) You make the decision alone but before you discuss the problem with relevant subordinates individually d) You make the decision alone but before you share the problem with subordinates in a group mee�ng e) Problems are shared with the group (“par�cipa�ve management style”) The characteris�cs of the situa�on should be considered in deciding to which extent you would involve the group: o Importance of decision quality (as discussed above) o Extent to which the decision-maker has the necessary informa�on (including subordinates’ preferences) o Extent to which the problem is structured. In structured problems the alterna�ves, or at least the processes to generate them, are known o Importance of subordinates’ acceptance (as discussed above) and the probability that an autocra�c decision will be accepted instead Some�mes the objec�ves of superiors and their subordinates are not compa�ble. Par�cipa�ve decision- making works best where there is mutual interest in the problem. Social influences on group decision-making The following social forces can cause groups to make decisions having group consensus as the most important criterion, or that are greater in risk. • Groupthink The need for consensus and cohesiveness assumes greater importance than making the best decision. The group becomes defensive and avoids facing issues squarely and realis�cally. Groupthink is o�en found in highly cohesive groups (members’ desire to remain in the group contributes to it). Stress helps too. There is a natural tendency for groups to engage in this behavior. Valuing disagreement is the main possible remedy. • Riskyshi� and polariza�on As said regarding groupthink, there is pressure within groups for uniformity. As discussion and debate occur, the different posi�ons are discussed and tend to become more extreme: polariza�on. Polariza�on can be defined as a tendency for enhancement of the ini�ally dominant point of view of members. Groups or teams have the tendency to make riskier decisions than individuals. This effect is known as riskyshi�. In fact, when entering a group, each individual has their own inclina�on about a decision; in general, group discussion tends to strengthen these inclina�ons.