Organizational behavior modulo 2, Appunti di Comportamento Organizzativo

Scarica Organizational behavior modulo 2 e più Appunti in PDF di Comportamento Organizzativo solo su Docsity! Ob 2 Ppt 1 DECISION MAKING Decisions are important since you have to make plenty of them in a day. Some are easy, some are made automatically, some are more complex. The word “decision” from the latin means: “de-caedere” (to cut). The work of a manager is to make decisions. Today, we are discovering that uncertainty plays a major role. DECISION MAKING MODELS:  Rational (or normative) model  Administrative model  Appropriate Models  Garbage-model Rational  These models are defined rationale as they assume that decision-makers use a carefully designed set of criteria or rationales for making their decisions (Color of Regions in Italy during Pandemic) They also assume the process is rational as well (think about the decision to buy a car) The assumption here is that people will select the best alternative possible using economic- type of reasoning — i.e. rational decision makers will know exactly the weight of each criteria identified and will chose among the N alternatives the one that maximises the output. The main logic behind this model are:  Logic of consequences: actors will choose alternatives based on expected results of their actions.  Logic of appropriateness: actors will choose alternatives based on their preferences. How does this model work?  Recognize and define the problem  Generate N alternative solutions  Evaluation of alternatives based on well-defined criteria and also clear understanding of weight associated with each criteria.  Decide on the optimum solution  Implement the decision. Main assumptions:  People have a clear set of preferences  All the potential n alternatives are present in an environment  Decision-makers know all the n alternatives and cause-effects relationships between actions and consequences  The decision-maker is able to estimate the outcome and calculate the expected value of each alternative  The decision-maker selects carefully the optimal alternative possible.  This process seems very far from the reality (i.e. think of the purchase of a car) Administrative ModelThe decision-making process is less systematic than what the rational model suggests. Two factors that characterize the administrative model are (i) bounded rationality and (ii) satisfaction. Think of the last time you have bought a mobile phone. Which process did you follow? What information did you consider? Did you compare different alternatives, models, prices, etc. Decisions – in the reality – are characterized by a bounded rationality: people know a limited number of alternatives AND only few consequences for each alternative. A first limited aspect of our mind is attention: it is difficult to have clear attention to all aspects of a problem. Our memory has also limited capacities, our storing capacity is limited and the capacity to retrieve information is limited as well. Moreover, such memories are also different from the original ones. Understanding  Even if memory can recall some information in an accurate way another problem arises when information need to be organized and summarized in order to develop a complete understandingof the problem  Not always the connections among problems are clear in the focal actor. Communication  Communication is not easy among people who have different cognitive schema, experiences and background.  Think about cross-cultural communication or communication across people of different age and geographical origin So, the decision-making process (perceptions and judgements) is affected by several limitations: • cognitive limitation of understanding • Distortion with problem representation • Difficulties with information processing • Availability of relevant information • Bias related to prior experiences The decisions, therefore, are less perfect. It does not mean that decisions are not rational but rather that, due to boundaries of our mind, the outcomes should be evaluated more according a principle of satisfaction than of a principle of optimisation - To summarize: o When facing a problem, managers start searching a possible solutions. o It is very luckily that managers will focus on solutions that enable to resolve the most easily identified aspect of the problem. o A manager could search possible solutions for months, but rather time pressure or costs associated with the problems will lead to narrow the search of possible alternative consequences. o Some minimum criteria will be identified and the solution that matches these criteria in an acceptable way will be adopted. o This solution will not be the optimal one but the most satisfying one considering all possible factors and contextual constrains. -Unemployed persons can easily share the same neighborhood, the same socio- economic backgrounds and occupations with others who are without work -It’s also likely that these people meet with other unemployed during daily activities such as going in search for a job, to visit employment agencies, shopping in low-cost stores -They will try to share information or signs of mutual solidarity with people in the same situation REPRESENTATIVENESS This is a description of a person made by someone who knows him best: “Stefano is a very shy and reserved, always available but showing little interest in people and the world in general. He is submissive and has a need for order and structure; he is very detail-oriented”. (Is Stefano a librarian?) ANCHORING People often make evaluations starting form a given value and then adjust in the direction they believe correct. This adjustment is often not sufficient. Ppt 2 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE? You can’t define culture, but you know it when you see it!  It has been defined as the “ specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization.  It is the system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization form others.  It is a set of shared mental assumption that guide interpretation and action in organizations by defining appropriate behaviors for various situations Culture is how organizations do things. DRAWBACKSD OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Despite all its positive effect, culture can be also a liability:  Institutionalization : a company values just for itself and takes a life on its own, apert form founders or members.  Resistance to change : it occurs when the shared values of the members are not aligned with the innovation that people want introduce in the organization  Conformity ; organizations with strong cultures can favour conformity and social pressure, thereby being an obstacle to leverage the benefits of diversity.  Mergers and acquisitions : strong cultures can represent a barrier to mergers and/or acquisition, causing the entire process to fail. 7 CHARACTERISTICS THAT CAPTURE THE ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE  Innovation and risk taking;  Attention to details;  Outcome orientation;  People orientation;  Team orientation;  Aggressiveness;  Stability. Google:Google’s mission is to organize the world‘s information and make it universally accessible and use. Apple's mission statement. Apple designs Macs, the best personal computers in the world, along with OS X, iLife, iWork and professional software. Apple leads the digital music revolution with its iPods and iTunes online store. Apple has reinvented the mobile phone with its revolutionary iPhone and App Store, and is defining the future of mobile media and computing devices with iPad. [2004] “Facebook is an online directory that connects people through social networks at college (Harvard only)”. [2005] “Facebook is an online directory that connects people through social networks at schools” [2006] “Facebook is a social utility that connects you with people around you” [2007] “Facebook is a social utility that connects you with people around you...keep up with friends and family, share photos and videos, control privacy online, reconnect with old classmates” [2008] “Facebook helps you connect ans share with people in your life” [2009] “Facebook’s mission is to give people the power to share and make the world more open and connected.” FUNCTION OF THE CULTURE 1. Culture defines organizational boundaries; 2. It conveys a sense of identity for organization members; 3. Facilitate the generation of commitment to something larger than self-interests; 4. Regulate employee behavior (reduce ambiguity); 5. It facilitates the stability of the entire system; 6. Serves as sensemaking and control mechanisms for fitting employees in the organization. STRONG VS WEAK CULTURES  Strong cultures are composed of a core set of assumptions and implicit rules that govern day- to- day behavior in the workplace.  It ensures that everyone is pointed in the right direction, even spontaneously.  Lower employee turnover.  The stronger is the organizational culture, the less management requires developing formal rules and regulations to guide employee behavior. DARK SIDE OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE People criticize the role of organizational culture, assuming it operates like a brainwash! Culture might be a barrier to change, especially in dynamic environments where ability to innovate and change is essential for survival(e.g. kodak) Culture might be a barrier to leverage on diversity especially especially in strong cultures where there is pressure to conformity. “Yes men!” Barriers to acquisition and merge. Number of mergers have failed because of culture incapability. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE. The research indicates that national cultures has greater impact on employee behaviour then does their organization’s culture. HOFSTEDE (1980) He was the most important scholar to investigate differences in national culture by studying IBM emploees in several nations. These are few of the most important factor taken into consideration.  Collectivism versus Individualism  Power distance  Masculinity versus Femininity  Uncertainty avoidance HOW A CULTURE BEGINS  Organizational culture is shaped by company’s founders. They have no constrains by existing ideologies and might shape the company on their values;  They hire people having the same vision, think and feel the same way (any memory on this?)  They indoctrinate and socialize their employees to their way of thinking and feeling;  Founders’ behavior acts like a role modeling. Robert Keirlin has been called “the cheapest CEO in America”. He is the CEO of Fastenal Co., the largest speciality retailer of nuts and bolts in US with 6,500 employees. He takes a salary of only $60,000 a year. He owns only three suites, each of which he bought used. He clips grocery coupons, drives a Toyota, and stays in low-priced motels when he travels on business. With his behaviour he suggests that they don’t waste things in his company. KEEP A CULTURE ALIVE: SELECTION ‣ Organizations often develop unique terms to describe employees, equipment, customers, products. New employees might be overwhelmed with acronyms, jargon, etc. (e.g. googlers). HOT TOPICS ON ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizations are trying rebuild trust, by stressing the assumption that organizations are economically, ethically and socially sustainable. A CULTURE OF CANDOR Focus on transparency and candor to stop greed and corruption. Do not lie, internet will find out the truth… no yes men! Create a climate for reporting mistakes. GO GREEN! Today company emphasize the importance to adopt eco friendly behaviours. Introduction of policies to minimize resources use and address pollution, on a voluntary basis. However without a sustainability oriented culture the result will be poor. Ppt 3 SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION The best way to improve communication is by training for it as you would do for physical fitness. Communication involves the activity of conveying information, the creation, sharing and understanding of meaning WHY IS COMMUNICATION IMPORTANT?  Because it provides the information necessary to get the work done in organizations;  Because fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what they must do;  It conveys emotional expression of feelings in teams.  It facilitates decision-making;  It helps controlling employees’ behaviors;  It is critical for managing human resource activities (mentoring, developing, coaching, facilitating) ASSUMPTION #1: IT NOT POSSIBLE NOT TO COMMUNICATE. Every single behavior in our life is interpreted as a form of communication. It does not exist a specific behavior that does not convey a message related to communication and even when we decide to not communicate, we actually are communicating something. So, we can only decide if we want to do it effectively or not. ASSUMPTION#2: CONTENT AND RELATION It is important to pay attention to both the content and the relational dimension of the communication when we communicate as each message we give has both dimensions; The relational dimension can have much more importance than the context and shape different reactions in our interlocutor ASSUMPTION #3 VERBAL AND NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION We communicate with our words but also with our body and sometimes non- verbal communication is much more powerful. ASSUMPTION #4: COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS Does she (he) yell because he (she) does not listen or he (she) does not listen because she (he) yells? SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION It is a form of communication that helps leaders to communicate honestly and accurately, especially in difficult circumstances, without jeopardizing interpersonal relations; It allows to communicate information to others that is not complementary, or to resolve an uncomfortable issue with another person but, in the process, strengthen your relationships; The goal is not to be liked by other people or to be judge to be a nice person, but to create conditions to preserve interpersonal quality and enhance productivity by avoiding conflicts and tensions in the workplace. PRINCIPLE OF SUPPORTIVE COMMUNICATION  Congruent, not Incongruent  Descriptive, not Evaluative  Problem-oriented, not Person-oriented  Validating, not Invalidating  Specific, not Global  Conjunctive, not Disjunctive  Owned, not Disowned  Supportive Listening, not One-Way Listening #1 CONGRUENT Congruent basically means being honest; It means communicating what you intend (and not communicating something that does not correspond to real intentions or thoughts, e.g. denying to be anger with someone). If managers are perceived to be incongruent (i.e. that they hidden something or do not communicate the entire message), the trust towards them will reduce dramatically; Congruence, genuineness and authenticity are at the heart of positive relationships; This requires matching the tone of voice, body languages, and words spoken. Many people are afraid to respond in a completely honest way or are not sure how to communicate congruently without being offensive. #2 DESCTIPTIVE, NOT EVALUATIVE Evaluative communication consists of making a judgement on other people’s behaviors that are perceived as offensive and aggressive and make people grow defensive; People very often incur in such form of communication to resolve own bad feelings or anxieties: “You are dumb” implies “Therefore I am smart!” Very often, people engage in evaluative communication because they do not know an alternative approach. The risk is to activate a negative spiral of reciprocity that make all parts grow defensive; Descriptive evaluations offers an alternative, as it allows to be congruent, authentic and helpful. • 1 OBESERVATIONThe most important point is to not confuse observation, which is a simple act of describing accurately what is enhancing or reducing our well-being with judgements; It is important to choice words accurately.E.g. You are too generous (mixed observation and judgement); When I see you doing charity, I think you are too generous. #3 PROBLEM ORIENTED • Problem-oriented communication focuses on problems and solutions rather than personal traits; • Person-oriented communication sends the wrong message that the person is not adequate and therefore is not constructive; • It leads to a deterioration of personal relationships as people differently change their personality; • Even complimentary messages that are person-oriented might not be seen as trustworthy if not linked to a specific behavior (e.g., I think you are terrific because of this specific task accomplished for the organization is better than you are wonderful!) • Also, problem-oriented communication should link to specific standards rather than personal opinions. #4a INVALIDATING COMMUNICATION • Invalidating communication arises negative feelings. E.g., communication that is superior oriented gives the impression that other people are not adequate whereas you are competent and powerful–it creates obstacles to the communication; • An example of superior-oriented communication: “If you had asked me, I could have told you the executive committee would disapprove of your proposal”; • The same feeling of superiority of one part and inadequacy of the other can be created by using jargons, technical languages, acronyms. • Research has shown that employees have developed only 25% of their listening skills and they listen to and understand only one quarter of the things that are communicated. • The most common mistake is to interrupt and jump to the conclusions without waiting the message to be completely delivered. We can listen at a rate of 5000 word per minute but speak only at a rate of 125 to 250words per minute, so the listener’s mind can dwell on other things half of the time. SUGGESTIONS FOR SUPPORTIVE LISTENING  Empathetic responses: expressing understanding of others’ situation and point of vie.  Restatement: repetition of part of the speaker’s own words, to show you have received the information communicated.  Paraphrasing: expressing in your words what you just heard someone say.  Summarizing: trying to pull together the ideas and feelings that someone just related.  Clarifying: asking questions and inquiring to ensure that you understand the full picture.  Questioning: open-ended and specific questions to the speaker are also very important.  Soliciting feedback: about how the other person thinks you are doing as a listener. LESSON 5/05 /2021 LEADERSHIP Trait approach The trait approach has its roots in leadership theory that suggested that certain people were born with special traits that made them great leaders. Around the mid-20th century, several major studies questioned the basic premise that a unique set of traits defined leadership. As a result, attention shifted to incorporating the impact of situations and of followers on leadership. Researchers began to study the interactions between leaders and their context instead of focusing only on leaders’ traits. More recently, there have been signs that trait research has come full circle, with a renewed interest in focusing directly on the critical traits of leaders. Some of the important traits that are consistently identified in many of these studies are intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity, and sociability. In addition researchers have found a strong relation between leadership and the five factor of the Big Five personality test. s. Another recent line of research has focused on emo7onal intelligence and its relationship to leadership. This research suggests that leaders who are sensitive to their emotions and to the impact of their emotions on others may be leaders who are more effective. On a practical level, the trait approach is concerned with which traits leaders exhibit and who has these traits. The trait approach is also used for personal awareness and development because it allows managers to analyse their strengths and weaknesses and to gain a clearer understanding of how they should try to change to enhance their leadership. There are several advantages form the trait approach. First, it is intuitively appealing because it fits clearly into the popular idea that leaders are social people who are out front, leading the way in society. Second a great deal of research validates the basis of this perspective. Third by focusing exclusively in the leader the trait approach provides some benchmarks against which individuals can evaluate their own personal leadership. On the negative side, the trait approach has failed to provide a definitive list of leadership traits. In analyzing the traits of leaders, the approach has failed to take into account the impact of situations. In addition, the approach has resulted in subjective lists of the most important leadership traits, which are not necessarily grounded in strong, reliable research. Furthermore, the trait approach has not adequately linked the traits of leaders with other outcomes such as group and team performance. Last, this approach is not particularly useful for training and development for leadership because individuals’ personal attributes are largely stable and fixed, and their traits are not amenable to change. Overall, the style approach is not a refined theory that provides a neatly organized set of prescriptions for effective leadership behavior. Rather, the style approach provides a valuable framework for assessing leadership in a broad way as assessing behavior with task and relationship dimensions. Finally, the style approach reminds leaders that their impact on others occurs along both dimensions. Skill approach The skill approach is a leader-centered perspective that emphasizes the competencies of leaders. In the “ three skill approach” effective leadership depends on the basic personal skills: technical , human and conceptual. Although all the three skills are important for leaders, the importance of each skill varies between management levels. At lower management levels technical and humans skills are the most important. Leaders are more effective when their skills match their management. The leader competencies at the heart of the model are problem-solving skills, social judgment skills, and knowledge. These competencies are directly affected by the leader’s individual attributes, which include the leader’s general cognitive ability, crystallized cognitive ability, motivation, and personality. The leader’s competencies are also affected by their career experiences and environment. This model stresses the importance of the leaders’s abilities placing learned skills at the centre of effective leadership. The skill approach describes leadership in such a way that it makes it available to anyone. Skills are competencies that we all can develop and improve. Third; it provides a sophisticated map that explains how effective leadership performance can be achieved. Last, this approach provides a structure for leadership education and development programs that include creative problem solving, conflict resolution, listening, and teamwork. Some negative aspects are: First the beadth of the model seems to extend beyond the boundaries of leadership, including for example, conflict management, critical thinking, motivation theory. Second, the skills model is weak in predictive value. It does not explain how a person’s competencies lead to effective leadership performance. Third, the skills model claims not to be a trait approach; nevertheless, individual traits such as cognitive abilities, motivation, and personality play a large role in the model. Finally, the skills model is weak in general application because it was constructed using data only from military personnel. UnBl the model has been tested with other populations, such as small and large organizations and businesses, its basic tenets must still be questioned Style approach It focuses on what leaders do rather then who the leaders are It suggests that the leaders engage in two primary types of behaviours: task behaviour and relationship behaviours. Researchers at Ohio State developed a leadership questionnaire called the Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), which identified initiation of structure and consideration as the core leadership behaviours. The Michigan studies provided similar findings but called the leader behaviours production orientation and employee orientation. According to Ohio studies, there have been lots of studies to find the best way for leaders to combine task and relationship behaviours . the goal is to find the an universal set of leadership behaviour capable of explaining leadership effectiveness in every situation. The results form these efforts have been conclusive, however researchers had difficulty identifying one best style of leadership. The style approach has several strengths and weaknesses. On the positive side, it has broadened the scope of leadership research to include the study of the behaviors of leaders rather than only their personal traits or characteristics. Second, it is a reliable approach because it is supported by a wide range of studies. Third, the style approach is valuable because it underscores the importance of the two core dimensions of leadership behavior: task and relationship. Fourth, it has heuristic value in that it provides us with a broad conceptual map that is useful in gaining an understanding of our own leadership behaviors. On the negaGve side, researchers have not been able to associate the behaviors of leaders (task and relationship) with outcomes such as morale, job satisfaction, and productivity. In addition, researchers from the style approach have not been able to identify a universal set of leadership behaviors that would consistently result in effective leadership. Last, the style approach implies but fails to support fully the idea that the most effective leadership style is a high–high style (i.e., high task and high relationship) Situational approach Situational leadership is a prescriptive approach to leadership that suggests how leaders can become effective in many different types of organizational settings involving a wide variety of organizational tasks. This approach provides a model that suggests to leaders how they should behave based on the demands of a particular situation. Situational leadership classifies leadership into four styles: S1 is high directive–low supportive, S2 is high directive–high supportive, S3 is low directive–high supportive, and S4 is low directive– low supportive. The situational leadership (SLII) model describes how each of the four leadership styles applies to subordinates who work at different levels of development, from D1 (low in competence and high in commitment), to D2 (moderately competent and low in commitment), to D3 (moderately competent but lacking commitment), to D4 (great deal of competence and a high degree of commitment). Effective leadership occurs when the leader can accurately diagnose the development level of subordinates in a task situation and then exhibit the prescribed leadership style that matches that situation. Leadership is measured in this approach with questionnaires that ask respondents to assess a series of work-related situations. The questionnaires provide information about the leader’s diagnostic ability, flexibility, and effectiveness. They are useful in helping leaders to learn about how they can change their leadership style to become more effective across different situations. There are four major strengths to the situational approach. First, it is recognized by many as a standard for training leaders. Second, it is a practical approach, which is easily understood and easily applied. Third, this approach sets forth a clear set of prescriptions for how leaders should act if they want to enhance their leadership effectiveness. Fourth, situational leadership recognizes and stresses that there is not one best style of leadership; instead, leaders need to be flexible and adapt their style to the requirements of the situation. Criticisms of situational leadership suggest that it also has limitations. Unlike many other leadership theories, this approach does not have a strong body of research findings to justify and support the theore@cal underpinnings on which it stands. As a result, there is ambiguity regarding how the approach conceptualizes certain aspects of leadership. It is not clear in explaining how subordinates move from low development levels to high development levels, nor is it clear on how commitment changes over @me for subordinates. Without the basic research findings, the validity of the basic prescriptions for matching leader styles to subordinates’ development levels must be questioned. In addition, the model does not address how demographic characteristics affect employees’ preferences for leadership. Finally, the model does not provide guidelines for how leaders can use this approach in group setings as opposed to one-to-one contexts. LME Theory Since it first appeared more than 30 years ago under the title “vertical dyad linkage (VDL) theory,” LMX theory has been and continues to be a much-studied approach to leadership. LMX theory addresses leadership as a process centered on the interactions between leaders and followers. It makes the leader– member relationship the pivotal concept in the leadership process. In the early studies of LMX theory, a leader’s relationship to the overall work unit was viewed as a series of vertical dyads, categorized as being of two different types: Leader–member dyads based on expanded role relationships were called the leader’s in-group, and those based on formal job descriptions were called the leader’s out-group. It is believed that subordinates become in-group members based on how well they get along with the leader and whether they are willing to expand their role responsibilities. Subordinates who maintain only formal hierarchical relationships with their leader become out-group members. Whereas in-group members receive extra influence, opportunities, and rewards, out-group members receive standard job benefits. Subsequent studies of LMX theory were directed toward how leader– member exchanges affect organizational performance. Researchers found that high-quality exchanges between leaders and followers produced multiple positive outcomes (e.g., less employee turnover, greater organizational commitment, indicative of strong transformational leadership. There are several positive features of the transformational approach, including that it is a current model that has received a lot of attention by researchers, it has strong intuitive appeal, it emphasizes the importance of followers in the leadership process, it goes beyond traditional transactional models and broadens leadership to include the growth of followers, and it places strong emphasis on morals and values. Balancing against the positive features of transformational leadership are several weaknesses. These include that the approach lacks conceptual clarity; it is based on the MLQ, which has been challenged by some research; it creates a framework that implies that transformational leadership has a trait-like quality; it is sometimes seen as elitist and undemocratic; it suffers from a “heroic leadership” bias; and it has the potential to be used counterproductively in negative ways by leaders. Despite the weaknesses, transformational leadership appears to be a valuable and widely used approach. PPT POSITVE LEADERSHIP DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP It is an influencing process occurring between a leader and his or her collaborators which is influenced by; • the leader’s dispositional characteristics (traits) and behaviors; • the collaborators (followers)’ perceptions, attitudes and behaviors; • the socio-emotional context (situation) in which this process takes place. EXAMPLE MICHELLE OBAMA THE COCKE MONSTER  This is one potential pathology associated to leadership. Power associated with leadership status can make people become more selfish, impulsive and forgetting others’ needs. They can become sociopath. THE FALLACITY OF CENTRALITY Because they hold a central position in the organization, leaders believe they hold all necessary information to make decisions. As a consequence, they seek less advices from their collaborators, do not challenge their information and become isolated. Avoiding this trap requires leaders to be aware of their behaviour and leadership fault, open minded and master the following: Curiosity, Evidence, Self-scepticism, Pragmatism CONTEMPORARY THEORIES Focus on the leaders’ EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE. In times of recession and trauma, great leaders are considered those who are able to create relationship based on trust, respect, caring and compassion towards the followers. Focus on the leaders’ behaviours that can be foster human growth and flourishing as well-being. The main assumption is that all people have the potential to excel and that we have a natural inclination toward goodness in life(we just need to find optimal conditions). POSITIVE LEADERSHIP A positive leader is someone who is capable of enabling positive deviant performance in the followers and engenders a focus on virtuousness and the best of human condition (Cameron, 2012). He/she does not ignore negative events but focus more on strengths and what goes right instead of what went wrong.Being a positive leader it does not mean to be nice or just kind and never provides negative feedback, it means focusing on strategies and interventions that can foster human growth and foster positive energy. POSITIVE DEVIANCE It is an intentional behavior that departs from the norm of a referent group in honorable ways (Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2003).For example: being capable of find better solutions in handling a problem, while having access to same resources and conditions than the peers. In essence, it consists of promoting positive change by making something exceptional, something different than the norm, something unconventional. An example (Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2003): Merck & Co. decided in 1978 to manufacture at its own expense and distribute for free a drug that helped to eradicate river blindness in developing countries. Do you have relevant examples to share? INDRA NOOYI Indra Nooyi is the first migrant woman promoted as CEO of an international company (PepsiCo). She has been the most powerful woman in Business list by Fortune magazine for more than 5 years and was named one of the 100 most powerful women in the world by Forbes. […] On a recent trip to China, a critical market for the company, Nooyi didn’t take the usual “CEO tour” of conference rooms, but spent 10 days immersing herself in China. She says, “I wanted to look how people live, how they eat, what the growth possibilities are.” WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO IMPLEMENT POSITIVE DEVIANT BEHAVIOURS HOW NORMS EVOLVE AND INTEGRATE POSITIVE DEVIANCE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN NEGOTIATION EFFECTIVENESS * Gender Differences in Negotiations — Men and women negotiate differently and these differences affect behavior and outcomes. «Men negotiating competitively, women negotiating cooperatively * There is some merit to the popular stereotype that women are more cooperative, pleasant, and relationship-oriented in negotiations than are men. * Men tend to place a higher value on economic outcomes : status, power, and recognition, whereas women tend to place a higher value on compassion and altruism. « women tend to behave in a less assertive, less self-interested, and more accommodating manner CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN NEGOTIATION * People generally negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them. * In cross-cultural negotiations, it is especially important that the negotiators be high in openness and especially aware of the emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiation. — American negotiators are more likely than Japanese bargainers to make a first offer — North Americans use facts to persuade, Arabs use emotion, and Russians use asserted ideals -— Brazilians say “no” more often than Americans or Japanese THE FIVE STEPS OF NEGOTIATION HHEH THE FIVE STEPS OF THE NEGOTIATION PROCESS 1, Preparation and planning * Gatherinformation : What is the nature of the conflict? What is the history leading up to this negotiation? Who is involved, and what are their perceptions of the conflict? What do you want fram the negotiation? What are your goals? * Developa strategy: Determine your and the other side’s Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement. Your BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement. Any offer you receive that is higher than your BATNA is better than an impasse. 2. Definition of the ground rules * Who will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What time constraints, if any, will apply? To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow if an impasse is reached? * Exchange their initial proposals or demands. 3. Clarification and justification : * Explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your original demands. This need not be confrontational. * Provide the other party with any documentation that helps support your position.