PANIERE COMPLETO DI TUTTE LE DOMANDE APERTE LINGUA E TRADUZIONE INGLESE 1A PASQUALI EMMA, Panieri di Lingua Inglese

Scarica PANIERE COMPLETO DI TUTTE LE DOMANDE APERTE LINGUA E TRADUZIONE INGLESE 1A PASQUALI EMMA e più Panieri in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! LEZIONE 008 241. Present Progressive and Simple Present: use, functions and examples We use the present progressive tense: - When somebody is doing something at this moment: Lucy is changing her shoes right now. - When something is happening at this moment. When the action has started but hasn't finished: It is raining at the moment. - To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact moment: We are planning a trip to Cuba. We use the simple present tense: - For facts: Whales live in the ocean. - For repeated or regular actions: We work every day of the week. - For habits: He only drinks water. - For things that are generally true in the present time period: She is my schoolmate. A significant difference between these two tenses is we use the simple present tense for things that are permanent or are in general and the present progressive tense for things that may change or are temporary. 242. Simple Past: use, functions and examples We use the simple past to talk about actions, states, or situations that are finished: Baudelaire was a poet You can use the simple past with time expressions that refer to the past: He lived in the 17th century 243. Past Progressive and Simple Past: use, functions and examples We use the past progressive to describe an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past. The actions began before the specific time and may or may not continue after the specific time: They were working that night. The past simple shows us that an action was in the past, not in the present. Regular past simple verbs have - ed at the end (e.g. called, played, arrived). Irregular verbs have a different form, usually with a different vowel sound (e.g. wake → woke, break → broke, feel → felt): My parents called me yesterday. We use past progressive with the simple past to talk about an action that was interrupted by another action. We use the simple past for the interrupting action: I was cooking when she called. 244. The uses of past continuous tense. The past continuous shows us that the action was already in progress at a certain time in the past: What were you doing at 10 p.m. last night? I was watching TV. The past continuous can also show that an activity was in progress for some time, not just for a moment: We were cleaning the house all morning. We make the past continuous with was or were and the -ing form of the verb. 245. Simple Past: use, functions and examples We use the simple past to talk about actions, states, or situations that are finished: Baudelaire was a poet You can use the simple past with time expressions that refer to the past: He lived in the 17th century 246. Past Progressive and Simple Past: use, functions and examples We use the past progressive to describe an action that was in progress at a specific time in the past. The actions began before the specific time and may or may not continue after the specific time: They were working that night. The past simple shows us that an action was in the past, not in the present. Regular past simple verbs have - ed at the end (e.g. called, played, arrived). Irregular verbs have a different form, usually with a different vowel sound (e.g. wake → woke, break → broke, feel → felt): My parents called me yesterday. We use past progressive with the simple past to talk about an action that was interrupted by another action. We use the simple past for the interrupting action: I was cooking when she called. 247. Present Progressive and Simple Present: use, functions and examples We use the present progressive tense: - When somebody is doing something at this moment: Lucy is changing her shoes right now. - When something is happening at this moment. When the action has started but hasn't finished: It is raining at the moment. - To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact moment: We are planning a trip to Cuba. We use the simple present tense: - For facts: Whales live in the ocean. - For repeated or regular actions: We work every day of the week. - For habits: He only drinks water. - For things that are generally true in the present time period: She is my schoolmate. A significant difference between these two tenses is we use the simple present tense for things that are permanent or are in general and the present progressive tense for things that may change or are temporary. 248. The uses of simple past tense. We use the simple past to talk about actions, states, or situations that are finished: Baudelaire was a poet You can use the simple past with time expressions that refer to the past: He lived in the 17th century 249. The uses of present continuous tense. The present continuous is made from the present tense of the verb be and the –ing form of a verb We use the present continuous tense: - When somebody is doing something at this moment: Lucy is changing her shoes right now. - When something is happening at this moment. When the action has started but hasn't finished: It is raining at the moment. - To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact moment: We are planning a trip to Cuba. The present continuous tense is used to describe dynamic actions that happen repeatedly, are currently happening, or will be happening in the near future. Present continuous can include action happening either at the time of speaking or in the near future. It typically consists of a subject attached to a present tense form of “be” (like “is,” “are,” or “am”) and the present participle form of the main verb. 250. The uses of simple present tense. We use the simple present tense: - For facts: Whales live in the ocean. - For repeated or regular actions: We work every day of the week. - For habits: He only drinks water. - For things that are generally true in the present time period: She is my schoolmate. 59. Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns: use, functions and examples We use a reflexive pronoun when the subject and object of a sentence refer to the same people or thing (he felt proud of himself) In imperative sentence with reflexive pronoun, we use yourself when the subject is singular; yourselves when the subject is plural. We use a reflexive pronoun to emphasize a noun: The job itself wasn’t import to him. By+a reflexive pronouns means alone or without any help Be+a reflexive pronouns means act in the usual way We use a reciprocal pronoun when the subject and the object of as sentence refer to the same people, and these people have a two-way relationship. We use each other for two people, we use one another for more than two people: Sara and tom talked to each other/one another 60. Types of future: uses, functions and examples The are several ways to talk about the future - Be going to - Will - Present progressive - simple present Be going to or will are used to make predictions or guesses about the future: Be going to, will, present progressive are used to talk about future intentions or plans: Simple present is used to talk about scheduled future events: train leaves at 10.00 pm 61. Used to: use, functions and examples We used to+base for of the verb to talk about past habits or past situations that no longer exist in the present: she used to sing in a choir We used to in sentences that contrast the past and the present, and we use time of expression such as now, no longer, not anymore with the present to emphasize the contrast: My grandfather used to play football, but now he’s old 62. Types of future: uses, functions and examples The are several ways to talk about the future - Be going to - Will - Present progressive - simple present Be going to or will are used to make predictions or guesses about the future: Be going to, will, present progressive are used to talk about future intentions or plans: Simple present is used to talk about scheduled future events: train leaves at 10.00 pm LEZIONE 024 51. Advice: Should, Ought to, Had better: use, functions and examples We use the modals Should, Ought to to say something is advisable (often with maybe, perhaps, I think): Jane should read this book We use had better for strong advise (something bad happen if the person doesn’t follow the advise): you’d better take this flight or you will miss the concert. Had better always refers to the present or the future, never to the past 52. Present Perfect: Indefinite Past Form of the present perfect with: have+past participle We use the present perfect to talk about things that happened at an indefinite time in the past: They’ve travelled to Germany We can use the present perfect when we don’t know something happened or whe the specific time is not important. We use the present perfect with adverbs like twice or often to talk about repeated actions at some indefinite time in the past (twice, many times usually go at the end of the sentence/ always/often/never usually go before the past participle) Ever can be used with the present perfect to ask questions (never to answer negatively) Just, lately, recently with the present perfect emphasize that something happened in the very recent past. 53. Requests: Can, Could, Will, Would, Would you mind...?: use, functions and examples We use the modals can, could, will, would to make a request: can I open the door? (could/would for soften request/polite) Please makes the request more polite In affirmative answers to request, we usually use expressions such sure, certainly, of course, no problem In negative answers, we usually apologize and give an explanation We also use would you mind+gerund to make polite request 54. Permission: Can, Could, May, Do you mind if...?: uses, functions and examples We use the modals can, could, May, do you mind to ask permission: Can I open the window? We use can or may in answer, but not could. When we refuse permission, we usually apologize and give an explanation. We use do you mind if to ask permission when our action may annoy or inconvenience someone: Do you mind if I smoke? 55. Present Perfect: use and examples Form of the present perfect with: have+past participle We use the present perfect to talk about things that happened at an indefinite time in the past: They’ve travelled to Germany We can use the present perfect when we don’t know something happened or whe the specific time is not important. We use the present perfect with adverbs like twice or often to talk about repeated actions at some indefinite time in the past (twice, many times usually go at the end of the sentence/ always/often/never usually go before the past participle) Ever can be used with the present perfect to ask questions (never to answer negatively) Just, lately, recently with the present perfect emphasize that something happened in the very recent past. 56. Permission: Can, Could, May, Do you mind if...?: uses, functions and examples We use the modals can, could, May, do you mind to ask permission: Can I open the window? We use can or may in answer, but not could. When we refuse permission, we usually apologize and give an explanation. We use do you mind if to ask permission when our action may annoy or inconvenience someone: Do you mind if I smoke? 57. Requests: Can, Could, Will, Would, Would you mind...?: use, functions and examples We use the modals can, could, will, would to make a request: can I open the door? (could/would for soften request/polite) Please makes the request more polite In affirmative answers to request, we usually use expressions such sure, certainly, of course, no problem In negative answers, we usually apologize and give an explanation We also use would you mind+gerund to make polite request 58. Advice: Should, Ought to, Had better: use, functions and examples We use the modals Should, Ought to to say something is advisable (often with maybe, perhaps, I think): Jane should read this book We use had better for strong advise (something bad happen if the person doesn’t follow the advise): you’d better take this flight or you will miss the concert. Had better always refers to the present or the future, never to the past 59. Suggestions: Let's, Could, Why don't...? Why not...? How about...? We use Let's, Could, Why don't...? Why not...? How about...? to make suggestions: Let’s go in Paris in Spring. Let’s always includes the speaker in the suggestion To agree with the suggestion, we usually answer with an informal expression 60. Present Perfect: Already and Yet Form of the present perfect with: have+past participle We use the present perfect with already in affirmative statements to talk about something that has happened before now: She’s already baked the pizza. Already usually goes between have and the past participle We use the present perfect with yet in negative statements to talk about something has not happened before now: She hasn’t cooked yet. Yet usually goes at the end of the clause. We use yet in questions to ask if something has happened befor now: have you bought the bread yet? In negative answer to yes/no question we can use haven’t or not yet. 61. Present Perfect: Since and For We use the present perfect with since or for to talk about something that began in the past and continues into the present: Robert Smith has been The Cure’s singer since 1976 We use Since+point of time / for+length of time (for years….) Form of the present perfect with: have+past participle 84. Adverbs: As...as, Comparatives, Superlatives We use adjectives to describe or give more information about nouns, they usually go before the nouns, or they can co after a non-action verb such as be, look, seem, appear, smell, taste. We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons (we need a bigger car) We use than when we want to compare one thing with another (John is taller than me) When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives with and (My dog is looking older and older) We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on another (The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is) Adjective: comparison with as…as To compare people/place/thing that are similar (NOT)AS+ADJECTIVE+AS+COMPARISON Adjective: comparison with Than to show people/place/things that are different: Sort adjective: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN+COMPARISON – Long adjective: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN+COMPARISON Irregular forms: good/better bad/worse We use superlatives adjective to compare one person/place/thing with other person/place/thing Form: Short adjective: The+adjective+est – Long adjective: The Most + Advective Irregular forms: Good/the best bad/the worst 85. Adjectives: Superlatives We use superlatives adjective to compare one person/place/thing with other person/place/thing Form: Short adjective: The+adjective+est – Long adjective: The Most + Advective Irregular forms: Good/the best bad/the worst 86. Nouns and Quantifiers Proper nouns are the names of particular people, places, or thing (months, nationality, seasons…), Capitalize the first letter of proper nouns (Americans, France, May,…) . Common nouns refer to people, places, and things (teacher, island, jam…) Common nouns can be either count or non-count. Count nouns are people, places or things that we can count separately: one book, two books, three books.. Count nouns can be singular or plural (he has one car, she has two cars), they can take singular or plural verbs (the book is brilliant, the books are brilliants), we can use a/an or the before them (a book, an apple, the book). Non-count nouns are thing that you cannot count separately (Rice), the can be abstract words, activities, fields of study, foods. The don’t have plural forms, they take singular verbs and pronouns, we usually don’t use a/an with them. We use the quantifiers some, enough, a lot of, and any with both count nouns and non-count nouns We use any in negative sentences and questions We use a few, several, and many with plural count nouns in affirmative sentences We use a little, a great deal, and much with non-count nouns in affirmative sentences We use many with count nouns and much with non-count nouns in questions and negative sentences. 87. Adjectives and Adverbs: comparatives and superlatives We use adjectives to describe or give more information about nouns, they usually go before the nouns, or they can co after a non-action verb such as be, look, seem, appear, smell, taste. We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons (we need a bigger car) We use than when we want to compare one thing with another (John is taller than me) When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives with and (My dog is looking older and older) We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on another (The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is) Adjective: comparison with as…as To compare people/place/thing that are similar (NOT)AS+ADJECTIVE+AS+COMPARISON Adjective: comparison with Than to show people/place/things that are different: Sort adjective: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN+COMPARISON – Long adjective: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN+COMPARISON Irregular forms: good/better bad/worse We use superlatives adjective to compare one person/place/thing with other person/place/thing Form: Short adjective: The+adjective+est – Long adjective: The Most + Advective Irregular forms: Good/the best bad/the worst 88. Articles: Definite and Indefinite A noun is indefinite when you and your listener do not have a specific person/place/thing in mind: let’s buy a book A noun is definite when you and your listener know which person/place/thing are you talking about: I buy the book We use the indefinite article a/a with singular counts nouns that are indefinite: a before consonant sounds/an before vowel sound – use no article or some with plural count nouns and with noncount nouns that are indefinite: there are (some) books in your room We use the definite article the with most common nouns (singular/plural) that are definite. We us THE when people/place/thing is unique, the context makes it clear which people/place/thing we mean, the noun is mentioned for the second time (the book was in the bedroom), a phrase or adjective such as first, best, right, wrong, only identifies the noun Adjectives often go directly before a noun 89. Adjectives and Adverbs: comparatives and superlatives We use adjectives to describe or give more information about nouns, they usually go before the nouns, or they can co after a non-action verb such as be, look, seem, appear, smell, taste. We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons (we need a bigger car) We use than when we want to compare one thing with another (John is taller than me) When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives with and (My dog is looking older and older) We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on another (The faster you drive, the more dangerous it is) Adjective: comparison with as…as To compare people/place/thing that are similar (NOT)AS+ADJECTIVE+AS+COMPARISON Adjective: comparison with Than to show people/place/things that are different: Sort adjective: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN+COMPARISON – Long adjective: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN+COMPARISON Irregular forms: good/better bad/worse We use superlatives adjective to compare one person/place/thing with other person/place/thing Form: Short adjective: The+adjective+est – Long adjective: The Most + Advective Irregular forms: Good/the best bad/the worst 90. Articles: Definite and Indefinite A noun is indefinite when you and your listener do not have a specific person/place/thing in mind: let’s buy a book A noun is definite when you and your listener know which person/place/thing are you talking about: I buy the book We use the indefinite article a/a with singular counts nouns that are indefinite: a before consonant sounds/an before vowel sound – use no article or some with plural count nouns and with noncount nouns that are indefinite: there are (some) books in your room We use the definite article the with most common nouns (singular/plural) that are definite. We us THE when people/place/thing is unique, the context makes it clear which people/place/thing we mean, the noun is mentioned for the second time (the book was in the bedroom), a phrase or adjective such as first, best, right, wrong, only identifies the noun Adjectives often go directly before a noun 91. Present Perfect Progressive and Present Perfect: use, functions and examples We use both the present perfect simple (have or has + past participle) and the present perfect continuous (have or has + been + -ing form) to talk about past actions or states which are still connected to the present. The present perfect simple usually focuses on the result of the activity in some way (She's read ten books this summer.), and the present perfect continuous usually focuses on the activity itself in some way (She's been reading that book all day) We often use for, since and how long with: - the present perfect simple to talk about ongoing states (We've known each other since we were at school) - with the present perfect continuous to talk about ongoing single or repeated actions (They've been playing tennis every Sunday for years) Sometimes the present perfect continuous can emphasise that a situation is temporary (I usually go to the gym on the High Street, but it's closed for repairs at the moment so I've been going to the one in the shopping centre). 434. Complete the sentences with the negative of the words in the box by adding un-, in-, dis- or ir-. There are two extra words. cooperative fair friendly honest loyal popular selfish sensitive 1 The people at my new club were quite UNFRIENDLY at first and didn't really speak to me. 2 John was DISHONEST and didn't tell his parents the truth. 3 Tim often refuses to work with others. He's quite UNCOOPERATIVE. 4 Bill sang better than Jan, but she won the singing contest. That was UNFAIR . 5 Martin upsets people sometimes with the things he says. He can be a bit INSENSITIVE . 6 My friends are never DISLOYAL . They'd never talk about me when I'm not there. 435. Decide which answer, A, B, C or D, best fits each gap. The cave of Altamira, some 30 km from the city of Santander in Spain, is (1) RENOWNED in history as it contains some of the most famous paintings of animals from the paleolithic era (c. 15,000 BCE). It was the first cave in (2) WHICH paintings were discovered but in the north of Spain there are seventeen more caves with prehistoric art. The paintings in the Altamira cave were discovered in the 1880s but for a long time people thought they were (3) FAKE. It was only at the beginning of the 20th century that their authenticity was confirmed. Still, some people were not too convinced. In those days, paleolithic human beings were believed (4) TO HAVE BEEN unable to express themselves artistically. In the second half of the 20th century, the cave became highly popular. Unfortunately, the carbon dioxide in the air the visitors breathed out was starting to have a negative (5) IMPACT on the paintings. The authorities decided to close the cave to the public. Eventually, a replica of the cave and a museum were built next to it so there are now (6) PLENTY of opportunities for people to enjoy and admire these amazing works. ___________________________________________________ 1 A full B renowned C steeped D packed 2 A what B which C that D where 3 A disguised B deceived C airbrushed D fake 4 A to be B being C to have been D to having been 5 A result B impact C damage D harm 6 A many B more C most D plenty 436. Read the text and think of the word which best fits each gap. Use only one word in each gap. Last summer I decided to take an exam in French. I didn't want to put (1) OFF revising for the exam till the last moment, so I prepared a great study schedule. I was going to learn a bit every day. It worked well at the beginning. After lunch, I (2) WOULD go to my room and get (3) DOWN to work for a good few hours. However, things went wrong one day when I needed to use an online dictionary. I saw some new messages from my friends, replied to them, watched a few videos and, before I knew it, it was dinnertime. In the end, I did very (4) LITTLE revising and I failed the exam. Going online while studying is not always a good idea! Recently my dad has shown me an application which he uses to manage his time at work. It simply blocks access. 437. You are going to read an article about counterfeit goods. Five sentences have been removed from the article. Choose from the sentences (A-F) the one which fits each gap (1-5). There is one extra sentence which you do not need to use. SAVE MONEY WITHOUT BREAKING THE LAW Fake brand-name goods have been popular for many years. Most people who buy them know that what they are buying isn't really made by the company whose name is on the label. (1) D Although the quality can't be guaranteed, they can, at least for a short while, pretend to themselves and their friends that they are wearing the same clothes, watches, perfume and jewellery as the celebrities they admire. Now, however, the problem is growing. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development estimates that the value of counterfeit goods crossing international borders is over $250 billion a year. (2) E This reduces tax revenues for national governments and makes it more difficult for them to finance schools, hospitals and other essential services. However, the problems are not only financial. The Internet has seen potentially harmful fake products being offered for sale. The most dangerous of all are fake medicines. (3) A Others, who would never deliberately buy any drugs not regulated by the government, are fooled by authentic-looking websites. Whatever the reason, the purchase can be deadly. Large numbers of children have been killed by fake drugs and baby products in countries such as China, Panama and Nigeria in recent years. Almost certainly individuals have suffered in the same way in many other places. It is easy to avoid fake products. (4) F By careful searching, you can find which of these stores is selling the products you want for the lowest prices. You can save even more money, though, by searching for cheap, but legal alternative products. A quick search shows that a Rolex Explorer II watch can cost from about $3,000 to over $5,000 depending on the model you prefer. A fake Rolex is cheaper but it may not work or it may not even arrive. However, an original Steinhart Ocean II can be yours for under £500 and it is reasonably similar to a Rolex. It doesn't have the more famous name on it and people may not be as impressed by it as by a fake Rolex. (5) B You will also have a receipt in case anything goes wrong. We all like a bargain and some products are extremely expensive but buying counterfeit goods is not the best way to find one. A Some people purchase cheaper options deliberately, knowing they aren't genuine but hoping they won't do any harm. B However, unlike an illegal fake, you have got an item of superb quality and you won't have broken the law by buying it. C The problem with these products is that they look so similar to the real thing that police officers and customs officials are unable to distinguish between them. D They don't mind, as long as they feel they have got a bargain. E When you include the value of products which are sold in the country they are produced in, this amount more than doubles. F If you only buy from reputable shops and their websites, you can be sure that you are buying the right product. 1 _____D 2 _____E 3 _____A 4 _____F 5 _____B 438. Use the prompts to write questions. 1 What time you / go / to school / every morning? What time do you go to school every morning? 2 What / your sister / do / today? What is your sister doing today? 3 you / used to / play football / when / you / be / a child? Did you use to play football when you were a child 4 How many languages / your parents / speak? How many languages do your parents speak 5 you / ever / meet / anyone famous? Have you ever met anyone famous 6 Who / you / wait / for / now? Who are you waiting for now? 439. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. This is such a large village. It's the BIGGEST village on this island We use superlatives adjective to compare one person/place/thing with other person/place/thing Form: Short adjective: The+adjective+est – Long adjective: The Most + Advective Irregular forms: Good/the best bad/the worst 440. Read the text and choose the correct answer, A, B or C. About two years ago, my family and I moved into a really amazing house right out in the 1 COUNTRYSIDE and away from everyone. My mum works as a full-time 2 ARTIST and the house is perfect for her to do her paintings, as there's enough space for a big 3 STUDIO where she can paint. She says she's always 4 INSPIRED by the wonderful landscape around the house, and the neighbours around us have been very 5 HELPFUL and brought us food and drinks. My dad likes it here too and spends a lot of time 6 WORKING in the garden. 1 A countryside B suburbs C city D village 2 A writer B artist C musician D sculptor 3 A centre B lab C studio D floor 4 A interested B passionate C disappointed D inspired 5 A helpful B clever C interesting D funny 6 A work B worked C to work D working 448. Complete the text with the words in the box. There are two extra words. bargains car crime community service complaint identity refund suspects website 1 You sometimes need your passport to prove your identity 2 Sometimes criminals are given community as a punishment. 3 Cars and motorbikes are safer in our town after a drop in crime . 4 I picked up some great bargains in the sales last week. 5 This website has all the information you need about pets. 6 My new phone was faulty, so the shop gave me a refund. 449. Match 1-6 with a-h to make sentences. There are two extra options. 1 The man who stole my bag will appear – e - in court soon. 2 Will you buy me a bottle - a - of water, please? 3 I can't return this dress as I didn't keep - c the receipt. 4 To get a job, you have to apply – g - for it first! 5 Tom likes the T-shirt but wants to try- b - it on first 6 Jerry's been busy, so now he's taking – d - some time off. a of water, please? b it on first. c the receipt. d some time off. e in court soon. f out about it. g for it first! h rid of it. 450. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in capitals. 1 My dad is a BIOLOGIST at the university. BIOLOGY 2 Tim's teachers say he has the ABILITY to do very well at school. ABLE 3 Jackie's lucky because her boss is a very good EMPLOYER . EMPLOY 4 Darren wants to work as a computer programmer when he's older. PROGRAMME 5 Jim is a volunteer in his local library on Saturdays. VOLUNTARY 6 My little sister is always so ENERGIC . She makes me feel tired! ENERGY 451. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. 1 My teacher said I should study Maths at university. It was my teacher WHO TOLD ME THAT I should study Maths at university. 2 Terry lives in a house that's joined to one other house. Terry lives in a SEMI-DETACHED house. 3 Bill has a job that doesn't pay very well. Bill is badly PAYED for his work. 4 Joanna's hoping she'll be accepted at university. Joanna's hoping she'll get a N ADMISION at university. 5 We can't go to the park - it's raining. It's TOO wet to go to the park. 6 I've never been to a bigger city than New York. New York is THE BIGGEST city I've ever been to. 452. Read the text and choose the correct answer, A, B or C. After all the years I've spent in the classroom, it's finally time for me to 1 LEAVE school! I thought at first that I'd feel really 2 PLEASED , but in fact, the whole thing is 3 MORE difficult than I imagined. I've 4 ALREADY decided not to go straight to university, I made that decision several months ago. Instead, I'm going to wait and do a 5 GAP year. That will give me time to 6 CHOOSE a job or course that's suitable for me. 1 A attend B leave C depart D skip 2 A funny B caring C outgoing D pleased 3 A much B so C more D as 4 A just B already C yet D ever 5 A break B holiday C gap D space 6 A choose B discover C search D explore 453. Choose the correct options. 1 Jon was working / worked when I saw him yesterday. WORKING 2 That's the seaside town which / where we had a family holiday. WHERE 3 I've studied English since / from I was twelve. SINCE 4 Have you seen / Did you see the new film at the cinema yet? HAVE you seen 5 The sign says 'No Photography', so you don't have to / mustn't use your camera. MUSTN’T 6 What will / would you do if you lost your key? WOULD 454. Complete the text with one word in each gap. My father works as a scientist and I think he always wanted me 1 TO share his interest. So 2 WHEN I was a child, he always 3 TOOK me to his lab every weekend and showed me his work. I loved going there and I always hoped I'd 4 GREW up with some brilliant ideas, like him. Sadly, though, that has 5 NEVER happened! And in fact, now I'm older, I've decided I really 6 WON’T stand studying biology! It's just not my subject. But luckily I love Maths. 455. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb in brackets. 1 What will you do if it RAINS (rain) at the weekend? 2 If I WERE (be) you, I'd go home now - it's late. 3 Sam was early, so he DIDN’T HAVE TO (not have to) run for the bus. 4 How long HAVE YOU BEEN LIVING (you / live) in this house? 5 Emma's dad IS GOING TO FLY (fly) to Rome on business next week. 5 If I HAD (have) enough money, I would go travelling. 456. Match 1-6 with a-h to make sentences. There are two extra options. 1 My friend Jan sells things in a local store. She's d - d a shop assistant. 2 I get on very well - c with my classmates. 3 At school, we eat our lunch - g in the canteen. 4 Before a test, I always try to do - a some revision. 5 I'd really love a job with a high - h salary. 6 Sam loves computers, so he'd like to work - b from home. a some revision. b from home. c with my classmates. d a shop assistant. e shifts. f in IT. g in the canteen. h salary. 457. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in capitals. 1 Jon Moss is my favourite SINGER at the moment. SING 2 She's always smiling and CHEERFUL . CHEER 3 I think you need a lot of IMAGINATION to be a writer. IMAGINE 4 He always does the same thing - he's so PREDICTABLE PREDICT 5 Ben knew he had to take RESPONSABILITY for breaking the vase. RESPONSIBLE 6 This new thriller held my ATTENDANCE right to the end. You must read it! ATTEND 458. Complete the text with one word in each gap. What kind of career do you want to have? I've decided I 1 WOULD like to become a film director, so I'm trying to get as much experience 2 AS possible. And I'm doing that by 3 TO some short films with the camera on my mobile phone. They're 4 IN great quality, unfortunately, because my camera isn't very advanced. But I've 5 ALREADY produced several short sci-fi films, using my own 6 SPECIAL effects! 459. Preferences: Prefer, Would prefer, Would rather We use prefer, would prefer and would rather to talk about things or activities that you like better than other things or activities: She usually prefers pop music – I’d rather study alone. We usually use contraction for would in speech and informal writing; we often use prefer to express a general preference; we use would prefer or would rather to talk about a preference in a specific situation; we don’t use will to talk about preferences. Prefer and would prefer may be folloeed by a noun, a gerund, or an infinitive Would rather can only be followed by the base form of the verb (negative I’d rather not) Comparison with to can follow prefer/would prefer+noun / Comparison with to can also follow prefer/would prefer+gerund / comparison with than can follow would rather + base for of verb. 468. Infinitives of Purpose, with Too and Enough, and gerunds and infinitives We use an infinitive (to+base form of verb) to explain the purpose of an action. It often answers the question why? We can also use the longer for in order to + base form of verb to explain purpose We use too+adjective/adverb+infinitive to give a reason: she’s too young to drive We can also use adjective/adverb+enough+infinitive to give a reason: My grandfather is old enough to play football. Too comes before the adjective or adverb Enough comes after the adjective or adverb Sometimes we use for+noun/pronoum before the infinitive Some verbs, are followed by a gerund (base form+ing): appreciate, avoid, can’t stand, end up, fell like, keep, mind, recall, regret Some verbs are followed by an infinitive (to+base form): afford, agree, decide, expect, need, offer, plan, want, would like Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive: begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer The gerund is the only verb form that can folloe a preposition For general statement we can use: gerund as subject / it+infinitive 469. Fill the gaps with the right preposition. Use the lines below the exercise to write your answers: 'Have you ever been (1) IN Tokyo?' 'No, I've never been (2) IN Japan.' Mozart died (3) IN Vienna in 1791 (4) AT the age of 35. 470. Fill the gaps with the right preposition. Use the lines below the exercise to write your answers: 'How did you get here? Did you come (1) WITH the bus?' 'No, I came (2) BY car.' Anna spent two years working (3) IN Chicago before returning (4) TO Italy. 471. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. This watch is very expensive. It's the MOST EXPENSIVE watch in the shop SUPERLATIVES: THE ADJECTIVE+EST / Long THE MOST ADJECTIVE / Irregulars Good:The Best/Bad:The Worst 472. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. This dress is beautiful. It's the MOST BEAUTIFUL dress in the shop window SUPERLATIVES: THE ADJECTIVE+EST / Long THE MOST ADJECTIVE / Irregulars Good:The Best/Bad:The Worst 473. Preferences: Prefer, Would prefer, Would rather We use prefer, would prefer and would rather to talk about things or activities that you like better than other things or activities: She usually prefers pop music – I’d rather study alone. We usually use contraction for would in speech and informal writing; we often use prefer to express a general preference; we use would prefer or would rather to talk about a preference in a specific situation; we don’t use will to talk about preferences. Prefer and would prefer may be followed by a noun, a gerund, or an infinitive Would rather can only be followed by the base form of the verb (negative I’d rather not) Comparison with to can follow prefer/would prefer+noun / Comparison with to can also follow prefer/would prefer+gerund / comparison with than can follow would rather + base for of verb. 474. Necessity: Have (got) to, Don't Have to, Must, Must not, Can't These verbs are modal verbs. They express necessity or obligation. The modal verbs “must,” “have to” show that something is not optional; it is necessary. Must is the strongest and most serious modal verb of the three and is most common in writing. It is unusual to use “must” in questions (it can be used only for the present and the future) : I must study tonight. Have to is the most commonly used modal of obligation. It is useful for forming questions and negatives. The subject and verb must agree for he/she/it subjects AND the question form requires “Do/Does/Did”. It used for all tenses Have got to is used in conversation and informal writing to express strong feeling (it can be used only for the present and the future) Can’t is often used instead of must not to express prohibition in spoken English. 475. Gerunds after Prepositions The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition. The 'ing" forms of verbs are used after prepositions: She is good at painting. 476. Infinitives after Certain Verbs Many different verbs are followed, or can be followed, by a second verb in the infinitive: What inspired you to write this song? 477. Gerunds and Infinitives Some verbs, are followed by a gerund (base form+ing): appreciate, avoid, can’t stand, end up, fell like, keep, mind, recall, regret Some verbs are followed by an infinitive (to+base form): afford, agree, decide, expect, need, offer, plan, want, would like Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive: begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer The gerund is the only verb form that can folloe a preposition For general statement we can use: gerund as subject / it+infinitive 478. Infinitives with Too and Enough We use too+adjective/adverb+infinitive to give a reason: she’s too young to drive We can also use adjective/adverb+enough+infinitive to give a reason: My grandfather is old enough to play football. Too comes before the adjective or adverb Enough comes after the adjective or adverb 479. Infinitives of Purpose We use an infinitive (to+base form of verb) to explain the purpose of an action. It often answers the question why? We can also use the longer for in order to + base form of verb to explain purpose 480. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. This hotel is (comfortable) MORE CONFORTABLE than the one we stayed at last year. We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons, We use than when we want to compare one thing with another: COMPARATIVES: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN / LONG: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN / IRREGULARS good/better – Bad/worse 481. Read the newspaper report and put the verbs in brackets into the most suitable form of the passive voice. Use the lines below the exercise to write your answers: In Paxham yesterday a shop assistant (1) WAS FORCED (force) to hand over £500 after (2) BEING THREATENED (threaten) by a man with a knife. A man (3) WAS ARRESTED (arrest) in connection with the robbery and (4) IS STILL BEING QUESTIONED (still/question) by the police. 482. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. Jennifer is (slim) SLIMMER than Kate We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons, We use than when we want to compare one thing with another: COMPARATIVES: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN / LONG: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN / IRREGULARS good/better – Bad/worse 483. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. Acatama desert is such a dry place. It's the DRIEST place on earth SUPERLATIVES: THE ADJECTIVE+EST / Long THE MOST ADJECTIVE / Irregulars Good:The Best/Bad:The Worst 484. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. I think German is (difficult) MORE DIFFICULT than Spanish COMPARATIVES: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN / LONG: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN / IRREGULARS good/better – Bad/worse 485. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. Living in the country is (relaxing) MORE RELAXING than living in a big city COMPARATIVES: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN / LONG: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN / IRREGULARS good/better – Bad/worse 486. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. This city is (dirty) DIRTIER than my town COMPARATIVES: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN / LONG: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN / IRREGULARS good/better – Bad/worse 487. Complete the sentence using the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your expanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed, when we use it and any exceptions and/or irregular forms. The place was (far) FURTHER than I expected COMPARATIVES: ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN / LONG: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN / IRREGULARS good/better – Bad/worse LEZIONE 048 51. Insert a/an or the where necessary. Leave the space empty if the sentence is already complete. 1. I don't usually like staying at ....... hotels, but last summer we spent two weeks at A very nice hotel by THE sea. 2. If you go to live in A foreign country you should try and learn THE language in order to fit into THE local community. 3. Helen is AN economist. She lives in THE United States and works for AN investment company. 4. I love ................. sport, especially .............. tennis . I play two or three times A week if I can. 52. Write an email to your friend Albert and tell him about the city/town/place you live in. Write 100 words Dear Albert Thank you for your e-mail. I would like to invite you to my city, Agrigento. Agrigento is located in the south of Sicily. It is a very ancient city, in fact, it is famous for the Valley of the Temples, a huge archaeological park, where you can admire the Temple of Concord, one of the best- preserved temples in the world. In its historical centre there is the beautiful 13th century Norman cathedral of San Gerlando. In Agrigento there are beautiful beaches in the San Leone area, famous for its pleasant nightlife. The food is excellent, especially the fish dishes and desserts. 53. Write a brief report about a topic of your choice 54. Choose one of the articles you have studied and provide a short summary covering the key points. Write 100 words 55. What did you do last weekend? Write 100 words. Last weekend, I went to work in the office on Saturday morning. After lunch I relaxed by watching a movie on TV, then I went out with my wife to go shopping. In the evening we went to a restaurant with our friends and for a walk. On Sunday, after breakfast I studied, sent emails, and went to my parents' for lunch. In the afternoon I spent a couple of hours playing the piano with my band. The day was rainy, so I did not go out, and spent the evening with my wife and children watching a funny TV series. 56. How do you think the world will be different in 50 years' time? Write 100 words 57. What kind of holiday do you like best and why? Write 100 words 58. What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a student? Write 100 words 59. Describe a festival that is celebrated in your local area. Include information about when and where it happens, what it is for and what people do during it. Write 100 words. 60. What do you do to relax? Write 100 words 61. What would you do if you had more free time? Write 100 words. 62. Your friend James is coming to visit your town/city/village for the first time. Write him an email and tell him what he should do and see during his trip. Write 100 words. 63. Describe your typical Sunday. In your description, include information about where you go, what you do and who you see. Write 100 words. 64. Write an email to your friend Helen and tell her how you celebrated your last birthday. Write 100 words. 65. Write a short review of the last film you saw. In your review, include the following information: the title, the main characters, the plot/story, your opinion of the film. Write 100 words. 66. How do you usually spend your free time? Write 100 words. 67. If you could go anywhere in the world, where would you go and why? Write 100 words. 68. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. He HAS never BEEN (be) to Spain, but he would really like to. Structure: present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb have and the past participle of a verb We use the present perfect: - for something that started in the past and continues in the present: - when we are talking about our experience up to the present - We often use the adverb ever to talk about experience up to the present - and we use never for the negative form. 69. Describe a member of your family. In your description, include information about: his/her appearance, age, personality and job. Write 100 words 70. Describe a typical week day in your life. Write 100 words. 71. Write an email to your friend David and tell him about your plans for next weekend. Write 100 words. 72. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. He usually follows a very healthy diet, but at the moment he IS EATING (eat) a lot of junk food because he's on holiday. Grammar Rule: present continuous. Affermative Subject+present tense of verb be+ing In this case this action is happening at the same time we are talking to. 73. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. When did you send that letter? I still HAVE NOT RECEIVED (not/receive) it. present perfect simple. Use it especially when we want to suggest a connection between a past event and the present. Structure Negative: Subject+Simple present tense of TO have+Not+Verbe past participle 74. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. When I get home this evening I AM GOING TO TAKE (take) a long bath and relax. Grammar Rule: TO BE GOING TO this form is referred to an intentional future Subject+Simple Present tense TO BE + GOING TO + VERB INFINITIVE 75. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. After work this evening my sister and I ARE GOING (go) to the cinema. She has already bought the tickets. Grammar Rule: TO BE GOING TO this form is referred to a future fixed, planned or definitely decided Subject+Simple Present tense TO BE + GOING TO + VERB INFINITIVE 76. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below, including the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. Tomorrow I AM MEETING (meet) an old friend for lunch. I've booked a table for two at my favourite restaurant. Present continuous for future – Structure Subject+Present simple tense of TO BE + Verbe base form+ING 77. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. He WAS SLEEPING (sleep) when I called. Past continuous describes actions or events in a time before now, which began in the past and is still going on at the time of speaking. Structure: subject+Simple Past TO BE + VERB BASE FORM + ING 78. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. So far today I HAVE EATEN (eat) a bowl of cereal and a sandwich. So far is connected with the use of the present perfect, because the action takes place in a period of time that has not yet ended: Structure Subject+Simple Presente TO HAVE+Verb past participle 79. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. We WAS COOKING (cook) dinner when the phone rang. Past continuous with When: It is used when an action takes place that is interrupted by another event Structure: Subject+Simple past TO BE+Verbe base form+ING 80. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it. Last night I SAW (see) a great film at the cinema. Simple past with temporal reference (Last night) – Structure: Subject+Past tense irregular verb 108. You have seen an advertisement in the newspaper for the position of English teacher at a popular College in Manchester. Write a letter of application giving information about yourself, your qualifications, and your previous experience, as well as explaining why you would be suitable for the job. 109. You have recently travelled by train and have been really disappointed with the service provided by the staff, and the delays you encountered. Write a letter of complaint to the company to complain and demand compensation. (150 words) 110. Cars are the greatest danger to human life today. Write an opinion essay. 111. You teacher has asked you to write a composition giving arguments for and against owing a mobile phone. 112. A local sports team in your town needs new facilities where they will train for national competitions. As assistant coach of the team, you have been asked to visit a new sports centre and to write a report assessing the suitability of the centre. Write your report in no more than 150 words. Use the structure and the useful phrases highlighted in the previous lesson. LEZIONE 056 51. Provide the main significant traits of Old English Old English is the name for all the dialects spoken by Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Nearly all of Old English literature is preserved in manuscripts transcribed in this region. The English language has undergone such change in the course of time that one cannot read Old English without special study. The differences between OE and MnE concern spelling and pronunciation, the lexicon, and the grammar.The pronunciation of OE words commonly differs from that of their modern equivalents. – The long vowels in particular have undergone considerable modification – (stān – stone; hū – how; hēafod - head). The rarity of words derived from Latin and the absence of French loanwords (the vocabulary of OE is almostpurely Germanic) - About 85% of OE words are no longer in use. Morphologically: - OE was still a heavily inflected language, - including four cases, - three genders, - two numbers, - two tenses, - three persons, - and three moods. Syntactically: - OE word order resembled that of PDE (present day English), - but was freer and more varied. [analytic languages -- languages that make extensive use of prepositions and depend upon word order to show other relationships - synthetic language-- a language that indicates the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections - phonemic difference -- denoting speech sounds that belong to different phonemes (e.g. ship – sheep; bin – been)] > OE was a synthetic language. 52. Provide the main significant traits of Modern English 53. What are the main features of early modern English? The change from Middle English to Early Modern English was not just a matter of vocabulary or pronunciation changing: it was the beginning of a new era in the history of English.The Renaissance brought with it widespread innovation in the English language. The rediscovery of classical scholarship created an influx of classical Latin and Greek words into the language. While Latin and Greek borrowings diversified the language, some scholars adopted Latin terms awkwardly and excessively, leadingto the term “inkhorn.”, referring to words which were being used by scholarly writers but which were unknown or uncommon in ordinary speech. The word derives from the then standard name for the container in which ink was stored, originally made from a real horn. 54. Provide the main features of Global English Recently, English has become a lingua franca, a global language that is regularly used and understood by many countries where English is not the first/native language. In fact, English is used in over 90 countries, and it is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN and of 98 percent of international research physicists and chemists. It is also the language of computing, international communication, diplomacy, and navigation. Over one billion people worldwide are currently learning English, making it unarguably a global language. According to the Ethnologue, there are over 508 million speakers of English as a first or second language as of 1999, a number dwarfed only by the Chinese language in terms of the number of speakers. In contrast, English is spoken in a vast number of territories including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, the United States of America, Australia, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, and Southern Africa. Its large number of speakers, plus its worldwide presence, have made English a common language for use in such diverse applications as controlling airplanes, developing software, conducting international diplomacy, and business relations. 55. What is the Great Vowel Shift? What does it imply? The Great Vowel Shift was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400 and separates Middle English from Modern English. In linguistic terms, the shift was rather sudden, the major changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not over, however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has become considerably more gradual. 56. Provide the main significant changes from Middle to Early Modern English The Great Vowel Shift was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400 and separates Middle English from Modern English. In linguistic terms, the shift was rather sudden, the major changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not over; however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has become considerably more gradual. The change from Middle English to Early Modern English was not just a matter of vocabulary or pronunciation changing: it was the beginning of a new era in the history of English. An era of linguistic change in a language with large variations in dialect was replaced by a new era of a more standardized language with a richer lexicon and an established (and lasting) literature. 57. What are the main features of Middle English? Middle English (1150 – 1500) was the period of levelled inflections William the Conqueror invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. It was not until the14th century—300 years later—that English became dominant in Britain again. In 1399, King Henry IV became the first king of England since the Norman Conquest whose mother tongue was English. By the end of the 14th Century, the dialect of London had emerged as the standard dialect of what we now call Middle English. The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Unlike Old English, Middle English can be read, albeit with difficulty, by modern English-speaking people. 58. Provide the main significant traits of Old English Old English is the name for all the dialects spoken by Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Nearly all of Old English literature is preserved in manuscripts transcribed in this region. The English language has undergone such change in the course of time that one cannot read Old English without special study. The differences between OE and MnE concern spelling and pronunciation, the lexicon, and the grammar.The pronunciation of OE words commonly differs from that of their modern equivalents. – The long vowels in particular have undergone considerable modification – (stān – stone; hū – how; hēafod - head).The rarity of words derived from Latin and the absence of French loanwords (the vocabulary of OE is almostpurely Germanic) - About 85% of OE words are no longer in use.Morphologically: - OE was still a heavily inflected language, - including four cases, - three genders, - two numbers, - two tenses, - three persons, - and three moods. Syntactically: - OE word order resembled that of PDE (present day English), - but was freer and more varied. [analytic languages -- languages that make extensive use of prepositions and depend upon word order to show other relationships - synthetic language-- a language that indicates the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections - phonemic difference -- denoting speech sounds that belong to different phonemes (e.g. ship – sheep; bin – been)] > OE was a synthetic language. 68. What is Prosody? Phonological phenomena such as stress, rhythm, tone and intonation can be subsumed under the term prosody of an utterance Prosody is the study of all the elements of language that contribute toward acoustic and rhythmic effects, chiefly in poetry but also in prose. The term derived from an ancient Greek word that originally meant a song accompanied by music or the particular tone or accent given to an individual syllable. As a part of modern literary criticism, prosody is concerned with the study of rhythm and sound effects as they occur in verse and with the various descriptive, historical, and theoretical approaches to the study of these structures. 69. Transcribe phonetically the following words: 1. Grass; 2. Tea; 3. teacher; 4. check; 5. environment; 6. vegetables; 7. organize; 8. sword; 9. heart; 10. imagination GRASS= grɑːsTEA= ti:TEACHER= ˈtiːʧəCHECK = ʧɛkENVIRONMENT= ɪnˈvaɪərənməntVEGETABLES= ˈvɛʤtəb(ə)lzORGANIZE= ˈɔːgənaɪzSWORD= sɔːdHEART= hɑːtIMAGINATION= ɪˌmæʤɪˈneɪʃn 70. Provide the definition of suprasegmental phonology Suprasegmental phonology involves the melody of spoken language; this includes awareness of speech rhythm, and perception and production of stress placement and word boundaries. Apart from oral prosody, suprasegmental phonology can also be assessed in a more holistic manner, namely with text reading prosody. In this type of assessment, a correct use of pauses, phrase boundaries and intonation patterns is assessed, whilst children are reading out loud. 71. What is Phonotactics? In phonology, phonotactics is the study of the ways in which phonemes are allowed to combine in a particular language. (A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound capable of conveying a distinct meaning.) 72. What is Prosody? Phonological phenomena such as stress, rhythm, tone and intonation can be subsumed under the term prosody of an utterance Prosody is the study of all the elements of language that contribute toward acoustic and rhythmic effects, chiefly in poetry but also in prose. The term derived from an ancient Greek word that originally meant a song accompanied by music or the particular tone or accent given to an individual syllable. As a part of modern literary criticism, prosody is concerned with the study of rhythm and sound effects as they occur in verse and with the various descriptive, historical, and theoretical approaches to the study of these structures. 73. Provide a definition of Phonetics, and its main objectives Phonetics: The study of speech sounds; how they are produced in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics), how they are transmitted through the air (acoustic phonetics), and how they are perceived by the listener (auditory phonetics) 74. Give a definition of assimilation and provide some examples Sound changes can be either conditioned, namely they occur only in specific phonetic environments, or unconditioned, that is to say they can affect all occurrences of a particular sound. One occurring type of conditioned change is assimilation, according to which one sound becomes more like another in its environment. Assimilation can be complete, in that the sounds involved in the process become identical (as in Latin septem > Italian sette), or can be partial, so that instead they come to share certain features. An example of partial assimilation can be found in the pronunciation of “HANDBAG” [‘hambæg], which is the result of the replacement of [n] by bilabial nasal [m], because of conditioning bilabial [b]. 75. Identify all the IPA symbols below which represent a) plosives b) fricatives c) voiced sounds [b]; [s]; [?]; [w]; [?]; [x]; [k]; [l]; [?]; [?]; [d] 76. What is Phonotactics? In phonology, phonotactics is the study of the ways in which phonemes are allowed to combine in a particular language. (A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound capable of conveying a distinct meaning.) LEZIONE 072 81. Derivational morphemes: discuss and provide examples Unlike inflectional processes, word formation processes may make words change their lexical class (or part of speech). Usually, the right-hand morpheme in a complex English word determines its lexical class (or part of speech). This determining morpheme is often called the head. In English, the most productive word formation processes are derivation and compounding. Derivation When a new lexeme is formed by adding an affix to an existing word, this morphological process is called derivation. The English language uses mainly prefixes and suffixes for its derivational processes.Prefixes and suffixes Derivational prefixes modify the meaning of English words without any changes regarding their lexical class. Many English prefixes are of Latin or Greek origin. The following survey lists a selection of some types of informationthat prefixes may add to English words. Many bases of these words are of Latinor Greek origin as well (ex.mono, poly/ co, contra/pseudo…) 82. Provide a definition as well as meaningful examples of: 1. clipping; 2. coinage; 3. Blending - Clipping is a word formation process that creates new words by shortening existing words, as in prof from professor, ad from advertisement, plane from aeroplane - coinage is used to create product names such as Weetabix, Sellotape, or Marmite. It is also used by writers of fiction for characters or items that exist only within their texts, for example hobbit in John R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord o f the Rings. - Blending is a process which involves a sort of combination of clipping and compounding, as can be seen in brunch (breakfast+lunch), smog (smoke+fog), motel (motor+hotel), electrocute (electricity+execute), and the more recent Bollywood (Bombay+Hollywood) - 83. Provide a definition as well some meaningful examples of bound morphemes Bound morphemes are morphemes that cannot stand alone and only occur as parts of words. Unlike free morphemes, bound morphemes must be connected to another morpheme to create a word. Both derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes. The -s suffix in "pictures" is an example of a bound morpheme. Another example of a bound morpheme is -ish, as in "childish." Some common bound morpheme suffixes are -ly, -ic, -ness, -ian and -less. Bound morpheme prefixes examples dis-, uni-, di, pre-, and poly-. 84. Open and close word classes: discuss and provide some examples. In morphology, we have open classes that frequently adopt new members, and closed classes that usually do not adopt new members. This corresponds to an important distinction between two groups of word classes. The first group contains word classes such as nouns (e.g. student), verbs (e.g. borrow), adjectives (e.g. new) and adverbs (e.g. quickly). These word classes are called content words. They are also known as lexical classes. Lexical classes are usually open, because they regularly adopt new members. The second group contains word classes such as determiners (e.g. the), prepositions (e.g. from), quantifiers (e.g. every) and conjunctions (e.g. and). These word classes are called function words. They are also known as grammatical classes. Grammatical classes are usually closed, as they rarely adopt new members. 85. Provide a definition of Morphology and of morpheme Morphology is the study of words and their parts. Morphemes, like prefixes, suffixes and base words, are defined as the smallest meaningful units of meaning. Morphemes are important for phonics in both reading and spelling, as well as in vocabulary and comprehension. LEZIONE 080 51. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of symbol and icon. Both symbols and icons represent other things, but icon is a pictorial representation of the product it stands for whereas a symbol does not resemble what it stands for. A symbol represents products or ideas, whereas icon represents only items that are visible. Icons are restricted to graphical representation of objects and one can easily understand what they stand for. On the other hand, one has to learn what a symbol stands for, as it is not similar to what it stands for. 52. Identify the presupposition in each of the following sentences: 1. Some books written by Chomsky are not very expensive; 2. The present pope is German; 3. I am glad that my colleague sent me an e-mail; 4. They intend to close more libraries. 1. Some books written by Chomsky are not very expensive; presupposition: Chomsky wrote some books 2. The present pope is German; presupposition: There’s an alive pope. Oppure there is just one pope. 3. I am glad that my colleague sent me an e-mail; presupposition: the person who is talking has a job. Or he asked an e-mail ? 4. They intend to close more libraries. They have already closed some libraries. 53. One of the two sentences in each of the following pairs of sentences contains a presupposition. Decide for each pair which sentence contains the presupposition and identify the presupposition-trigger: 1a) Anna thought she was in debt - 1b) Anna realised she was in debt; 2a) Have you stopped running marathons? -2b) Have you tried running a marathon? 54. Provide some meaningful examples of: synonymy, antynomy, and hyponymy. Synonymy When two or more lexemes have the same meanings correct-right or present-gift antynomy, (oppositeness) Two lexemes have opposite meanings. -complete oppsites male/female or dead/alive -gradable opposites hot/cold or large/small -relational opposites husband/wife or buy/sell hyponymyIs the relation between a general term (hypernym) and a set of more specific terms (cohyponyms) which are subordinated and included into it. Tree is the hypernym Willow, Pine, Birch are the cohyponyms 55. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of: metonymy and anynomy. metonymy (part-whole) a lexeme describes a part of a whole: “Bush has bombed Afghanistan” antynomy, (oppositeness) Two lexemes have opposite meanings. -complete oppsites male/female or dead/alive -gradable opposites hot/cold or large/small 56. Provide a definition of presupposition and paradox. presupposition: In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or PSP) is an implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse. A presupposition must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the utterance to be considered appropriate in context. It will generally remain a necessary assumption whether the utterance is placed in the form of an assertion, denial, or question, and can be associated with a specific lexical item or grammatical feature (presupposition trigger) in the utterance. Paradox: a statement that is seemingly contradictory or opposed to common sense and yet is perhaps true 57. Provide a definition of Semantics and its main objectives 59. Provide a definition of Semantics and its main objectives The field of linguistics is concerned with the study of meaning in language. Linguistic semantics has been defined as the study of how languages organize and express meanings. The term semantics (from the Greek word for sign) was coined by French linguist Michel Bréal (1832-1915), who is commonly regarded as a founder of modern semantics. Linguistic semantics looks not only at grammar and meaning but at language use and language acquisition as a whole. "The study of meaning can be undertaken in various ways. Linguistic semantics is an attempt to explicate the knowledge of any speaker of a language which allows that speaker to communicate facts, feelings, intentions and products of the imagination to other speakers and to understand what they communicate to him or her. 58. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of reference and sense. Reference Reference is a part of meaning. Assume that there are three trees in a field. Each tree has a unique reference. Each branch on each tree has a unique reference. And each leaf and the field have a unique reference. There are two ways we can look at reference. The first is physical in that each atom and electron has reference whether it can be seen or not. The second is perceptual: this means how we see objects--do we see them as an object or not? We will take the latter approach. Reference also includes imaginary objects: unicorns, leprechauns, Santa Claus, Hades, elves, eternal bliss, and so forth. This would also include objects which currently do not exist but could exist: a King of France, dinosaurs, a five-cent ice-cream cone, and so forth. Sense Sense is the more interesting part meaning. Sense refers to how we see an object or the amount of information given about an object. The classic example cited showing the distinction is the planet Venus. As a planet it has reference arbitrarily given the name Venus. It is often called the morning star when seen in the morning, and the evening star when seen in the evening. Thus, it has two senses, depending on the time of day the object is seen. The planet itself is the referent, the morning star is one sense, the evening star the other sense. It could have other senses. In another example suppose John has two sons, Bill and Henry; one nephew, Pete; and one grandson, Dave. When we refer to John as such, there is no sense. John is the arbitrary name given to the referent. Consider the following phrases: Bill's father Henry's father Pete's uncle Dave's grandfather. Each phrase either refers to John (X's father), or it may refer to John: Pete may have more thn one uncle and Dave has a second grandfather. In these cases the addressee does not know which of the possible referents is the intended referent except when clear from the context. The four phrases listed above represent a different sense of the intended referent. Virtually every object can have several senses. Names are referential. They have little or no sense. Lexical nouns each denote a sense. The term father refer to anyone who is a male parent (antoher sense). As a rule all dictionary definitions define sense, not reference. Only names in a dictionary reference and no sense. Technically, this is not a definition. Verbs, like nouns, have sense, not reference. Events rarely have names, though it is possible: the Holocast, World War II, the Big Bang, and so forth. 60. Identify the presupposition in each of the following sentences: 1. Some books written by Chomsky are not very expensive; 2. The present pope is German; 3. I am glad that my colleague sent me an e-mail; 4. They intend to close more libraries. 1. Some books written by Chomsky are not very expensive; 2. The present pope is German; 3. I am glad that my colleague sent me an e-mail; 4. They intend to close more libraries. 1. Some books written by Chomsky are not very expensive; presupposition: Chomsky wrote some books 2. The present pope is German; presupposition: There’s an alive pope. Oppure there is just one pope. 3. I am glad that my colleague sent me an e-mail; presupposition: the person who is talking has a job. Or he asked an e-mail ? 4. They intend to close more libraries. They have already closed some libraries. 59. Provide a definition with examples of: 1. Time deixis; 2. Space deixis; 3. Person deixis 63. Provide a definition with examples of: 1. Time deixis; 2. Space deixis; 3. Person deixis • Person deixis is about pointing at persons and it is expressed by using personal pronouns (I, you, us, etc.).E.g. I’m going to have a shower, what about you? (personal deictical terms are in italics); In some languages like Romance languages person deixis can express social contrast. This is known as the T/V distinction from the French form tu (familiar) and vus (non-familiar). In English, we don’t have distinct pronouns for representing familiarity or distance. • Space deixis is about pointing at locations o individuals or things. Contemporary English uses only two adverbs, here and there, but there are also some verb of motion (deictic verbs), such as ‘to go’ or “to come”, which retain a deictic sense when they are used to mark movement word the speaker (Come to myroom) or away from the speaker, as in “Go to my room”. • Time deixis is about the various times involved in and referred to in an utterance. Like place deixis, time deixis distinguishes between close to the deictic center and away from the deictic center. This is reflected inexpression like now, today or this week for a time close to the moment of speaking, and then, yesterday or next month for time remote from the momento of speaking, either in the past or in the future. The choice of verbal tenses can be an important temporal reference, too. 60. Analyse the following statement in terms of register: «The sternum requires great force to fracture». 70. Analyse the following statement in terms of register: «The sternum requires great force to fracture». In the sentence above the register is characterised by specialized vocabulary that a certain group of people use. Indeed, the term “sternum” and the verb “to fracture” are not likely to be used in common conversation but only between doctors and other medically trained people in a specific context (hospital, operating room). The most common terms would be “breastbone” and “to break” 61. What is accommodation? Provide some examples. 80. What is accommodation? Provide some examples. Speech accommodation is when speakers adapt their language, dialect, accent, style and/or register to that of their addressee (s). Speakers often signal that they belong to a certain group by making their language more similar to other group members. Among the reasons for accommodation may be our desire to identify more closely with the addressee(s), to achieve social acceptance or simply to increase the efficiency of the communication. There might be a upward convergence: convergence towards the speech of someone with power and status, or someone deserving the respect in the context, or a downward convergence :convergence towards the speech of someone with less power and status. For example, people simplify their vocabulary and grammar when talking to children or foreigners( converge downwards towards a lesser linguistic proficiency of their addressee). 62. What is language variation? 79. What is language variation? The observation, description and explanation of linguistic variation is one of the main concerns of sociolinguistics. Such variation shows in different language use at all levels of linguistic analysis, including pronunciation, vocabulary, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. For example, a speaker from America who takes the elevator to the second floor usually does exactly the same as an English person who takes the lift to the first floor. In this case, it is obviously lexical variation that could lead to a misunderstanding between these two speakers .According to the extralinguistic factors that motivate the use of a variety, we distinguish three major types of varieties: geographical varieties (traditionally called regional dialects or simply dialects), sociolects (or social dialects) that are motivated by social factors such as socio-economic status, occupation, ethnic group, gender, age and religion, and functional varieties that depend on the particular communicative situation. Additionally, in most societies there is another variety, the so-called standard, which has a special position and does not fit into any of the other types of varieties 64. What is the so-called dialectic continuum? 84. What is the so-called dialectic continuum? A dialect continuum is a range of languages or dialects that merge one into the other(s) without a definable boundary. It is spoken across a large geographical area, differing only slightly between areas that are geographically close to each other, and gradually decreasing in mutual intelligibility as the distances becomegreater.in England, for example, we frequently speak of a “Norfolk dialect” and a “Suffolk dialect”. Studies have shown, however, that the rural dialects in the area change gradually from place to place and that there is no clear linguistic break between the two areas. The distinction between Norfolk dialect and Suffolk dialect is thus based on social, namely the county boundary as an administrative dividing line, rather than linguistic facts. 65. What do we mean with the phrase "superposed variety"? 86. What do we mean with the phrase "superposed variety"? A superposed variety is a dialect that is usually used in print, broadcasting and administration, normally taught in schools and to non-native learners, and used by most educated speakers of English most of the time. Based on these functions, it is imposed over all other dialects. An example o superposed variety is Standard English 66. How are "Styles and registers" called? Why? 82. How are "Styles and registers" called? Why? Styles and registers are so-called functional varieties, as they depend on the context of a communicative situation. Styles and registers are characterised by the function of language in a particular situation and the consideration of such factors as addressee, topic, location and interactional goal rather than the background of the speaker. The exact definition of style and register is difficult. A common distinction is that style refers to the level of formality of an utterance or a text, whereas register refers to the choice of vocabulary in a specific communicative situation 67. Provide a definition of Upward and downward convergence 81. Provide a definition of Upward and downward convergence Speech convergence is when the speech of the speaker converges towards the speech of the person he/she is talking to. We can have:-Upward convergence when there is convergence towards the speech of someone with more power and status, or someone deserving respect in the context;-Downward convergence when there is convergence towards the speech of someone with less power and status. An example of this can be when people simplify their vocabulary and grammar when talking to children or foreigners. 68. What is register? 75. What is register? Register is the style o language used in a particular situation (e.g. formal, informal, spoken, written, slang, etc.) and it can be determinate by:-the relationship between the writer and the reader or the speakers;-the kind of writing (whether it is an official letter or a friendly note);-the subject matter (what we are talking about);-the specific purpose of a writing or speech ( scientific English, medical English, language of an advertisement). 69. Identify the direct speech acts performed by uttering the following sentences: a) Berlin is the capital of Germany; b) I hereby name this ship Mary Anne; c) Pass the salt, please; d) I promise you to be on time; e) What a lovely morning! 88. Identify the direct speech acts performed by uttering the following sentences: a) Berlin is the capital of Germany; b) I hereby name this ship Mary Anne; c) Pass the salt, please; d) I promise you to be on time; e) What a lovely morning! a) Berlin is the capital of Germany; > declarative sentence used for representative (or assertive) speech act b) I hereby name this ship Mary Anne; > declarative sentence used for representative (or assertive) speech act c) Pass the salt, please; > imperative sentence d) I promise you to be on time; > declarative sentence used for representative (or assertive) speech act e) What a lovely morning! > explanative sentence used for expressive speech act 76. What is sociolinguistics? What are the main objective of sociolinguistics? 87. What is sociolinguistics? What are the main objective of sociolinguistics? Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics is concerned with how language use interacts with, or is affected by, social factors such as gender, ethnicity, age or social class, for instance. As Coulmas defines, it is the study of choice and “the principal task of Sociolinguistics is to uncover, describe and interpret the socially motivated” choices an individual makes.[1] Sociolinguists are interested in how we speak differently in varying social contexts, and how we may also use specific functions of language to convey social meaning or aspects of our identity. Sociolinguistics teaches us about real-life attitudes and social situations. Below is a video featuring Paul Cooper, a PhD student at the University of Sheffield, in which he outlines some of the reasons studying Sociolinguistics is important in consolidating our understanding of society. 83. What is syntax? What are its main objectives? 84. Determine the sentence types. 1. Twinkle, twinkle, little star! 2. How I wonder what you are! 3. Is the little star twinkling? 4. The little star is twinkling. 100. Determine the sentence types. 1. Twinkle, twinkle, little star! 2. How I wonder what you are! 3. Is the little star twinkling? 4. The little star is twinkling. Twinkle, twinkle, little star! – Imperative sentence How I wonder what you are! – Exclamatory sentence Is the little star twinkling? – Interrogative sentence The little star is twinkling. – Declarative sentence 85. Draw the tree structure of the following sentences: 1. He loves carrots 2. She solved the mystery 3. The cat killed the mouse 94. Draw the tree structure of the following sentences: 1. He loves carrots 2. She solved the mystery 3. The cat killed the mouse 86. Which of the following examples based on tongue twisters, nursery rhymes, and songs are grammatical sentences? Why? 1. She seashore sells on shells the. 2. The looked man in the moon out of the moon. 3. Pussycat ate the dumplings. 4. Old Mother Hubbard to went cupboard the. 5. On the first day of Christmas my true love gave to me a partridge in a pear tree. 95. Which of the following examples based on tongue twisters, nursery rhymes, and songs are grammatical sentences? Why? 1. She seashore sells on shells the. 2. The looked man in the moon out of the moon. 3. Pussycat ate the dumplings. 4. Old Mother Hubbard to went cupboard the. 5. On the first day of Christmas my true love gave to me a partridge in a pear tree. 87. What do linguists mean with null-subject languages and non-null-subject languages? 96. What do linguists mean with null-subject languages and non-null-subject languages? Other languages (sometimes called non-null-subject languages) require each sentence to include a subject: this is the case for most Germanic languages, including English and German, as well as many other languages. French, though a Romance language, also requires a subject. Generative approaches to language assume that there are: 1.Universal General principles that are common to all languages 2.Individual parameters, which differ from language to language languages as Italian are called NULL SUBJECT languages. And Languages such as English are called NON NULL SUBJECT because the subject has to be mentioned explicitly. 88. What are the three criteria for determining a word's category? Explain. 97. What are the three criteria for determining a word's category? Explain. Traditional syntax classifies words into different syntactic categories the 3 criteria for determining a word’s category are: 1.MEANING refers to the traditional semantic notion of the word classes 2.INFLECTIONreferring to the morphological properties of a word 3.DISTRIBUTION of a word depends on its syntactic properties. Ex. TEACHER 1.noun -2.plural form teachers, possessive teacher’s 3.The student went quickly to the new library possiamo sostituire I termini con teacher 89. Give a definition of competence and performance. 98. Give a definition of competence and performance. In linguistics, the distinction between a person's knowledge of language (competence) and use of it (performance). Performance contains slips of the tongue and false starts, and represents only a small sample of possible utterances: I own two-thirds of an emu is a good English sentence, but is unlikely to occur in any collected sample. 90. What do these two statements by Chomsky imply? 1. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. 2. Furiously sleep ideas green colourless. 99. What do these two statements by Chomsky imply? 1. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. 2. Furiously sleep ideas green colourless. It is an example of a sentence whose grammar is correct but whose meaning is nonsensical. It was used to show inadequacy of the then-popular probabilistic models of grammar, and the need for more structured models. 92. What is syntax? What are its main objectives? Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences. It help us understand how sentences work—the meanings behind word order, structure, and punctuation.