Programma intero di letteratura inglese liceo linguistico, Appunti di Inglese

Scarica Programma intero di letteratura inglese liceo linguistico e più Appunti in PDF di Inglese solo su Docsity! THE VICTORIAN AGE During the Victorian Age 1/3 of the world was under Britain. Queen Victoria was the emblem of traditional values and conventions. The Victorian age was a time of profound cultural, scientifical, and technological changes based on innovations and inventions. Queen vittoria ascended the throne in 1837 and the Victorian age lasted for almost 64 years until the Queen's death in 1901. It was one of the most intense and complex periods of British history, an age of profound, economic, social and cultural changes. The Victorian age saw a rapid industrial growth and London became the world's largest city and the masses which used to live on the countryside, moved in the cities in search of war. The urban landscapes began to transform and workers live in conditions of poverty and degradation around the big cities. On the other hand, the central areas were very wealthy, and there were banks, grand buildings, efficient services and overall a situation of respectability. A sign of the Victorian age economic development is the advent of the machines, which made it easier and shorter to travel and which also permitted more ideas to circulate faster. It made everything easier in terms of work too by increasing productivity. The Victorian Age is also about social progress, starting from trust in human capacities and the right for women to vote. During Victorian age, there were a lot of social conflicts, for example 1. Starting from the old idea that women were the angels of the house. Women did not have the right to vote because of this deep rooted image, and it was thought that there was no use for them to vote or be involved in politics at all. Only wealthy men could vote, and actually even some women could not accept women voting in general. First time for women to vote was in 1928. 2. Faith in science had to coexist with moralism and the idea of social respectability. Victorian age society was a very moralist society. Women in general suffered a lot from this, for sample enjoying sex except for procreation was perceived a sin, but actually, science proves that it's OK to enjoy a sexual act, on the other hand, moralism proclaims it as a sin. But still, men went to brothels, so there was also a lot of hyprocrisy. 3. Triumph of liberalism paralleled to the birth of first socialist movements. The Chartist Movement was formed in 1938 and it took its name from the People's Charter, a document which requested the evolution of property rights, universal suffrage for old men over the age of 21, a secret ballots, and the salary for members of Parliament and annual general elections. The movement disbanded in 1848 after Parliament rejected its demand three times. But the workers still kept on demanding for what they were fighting for and finally in 1867 and 8084 they were granted the vote to all the heads of family who owned property. The working class found a graduate representation through the Trade Unions, which was made legal in 1871, and the socialist movement (which culminated in the foundation of the Independent Labour Party). Parliament was also forced to reform laws, including the 1870 Education Act. The number of children who went to school rose and in 1880 free schooling was introducted. It was compulsory to go to school until the age of 10. The spread of education was also meant to increase the number of skilled workers and the clerks that society needed. Women also obtained rights =, but not the right to vote. The rise of the British middle class was exalted in the Great Universal Exhibition of 1851. It was organized in London and a building made of iron and glass was erected in Hyde Park and known as the Crystal Palace. The exhibition represented the global triumph of British science, technology and industry. It was made to be done and then quickly undone. It suffered a number of fires until one of them completely destroyed it in 1936, it was a the end of an era. Traditional parties changed. The Victorian Age saw the formation of two main parties, which where the Conservative Party and the Liberal Party. The first one was representing the interests of the greater landowners, the rising middle class was represented by the Liberal Party. Anyway all the governments had to face the Irish question, which was represented by a growing demand for self-rule and by a great immigration of about 2 million people to America because the Fenian Movement used terrorism in support of its demand for independence. Of course this changes in the governments condition characterised the colonial expansion. Britain increased its dominions in Africa, Australia and New Zealand, and also furthered its commercial penetration in China and India.
 In terms of conflicts, Britain was very concerned with the American Civil War, and the effect this head on the industry. British workers were in favour of the north, but businessmen were on the side of the south. The war broke out in 1861 when many southern states abandoned the Union and formed the Confederation. The south surrendered in 1865, but in the same year, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated and slavery was abolished. THE NOVEL The novel was the main genre of the Victorian age. A new publishing world emerged, one in which what mattered were market choices, industrial and serial production and profits. The novels described a reality, which was way more complex than how it was in the 18th century when the novel was created. The plots mirrored the complexity of the current reality, therefore there were many subgenres describing aspects of the contemporary world. They usually led to a happy ending though. The novel analysed and criticised society but it was also a way to escape it. interest was for the external qualities and not for the inner life of his characters. He often exaggerated and ridiculed peculiar social characteristics of the middle, lower and lowest classes thus resulting in caricatures. His female characters often appear weak and flat. Main themes in Dickens’s novels • Family ties and relationships • childhood (Dickens’s children are either innocent or corrupted by adults) • Exploitation of child labour • Repressive school system • Dominant role of money • Poverty especially amongst the proletarians in large industrial cities • Pollution caused by industrialisation • Alienation caused by work conditions The style The main stylistic features in Dickens’s style are: • Use of long lists of objects and people; • Grouping adjectives either in pairs or in groups. • Piling up details, at times not strictly necessary. • Use of repetitions of the same word cluster or structure. • Rephrasing the same concepts over again. • Use of antithetical images in characterisation. • Exaggeration of the characters’ faults (caricature). • Sensationalism or suspense at the end of the episodes to keep the readers’ interest. • Happy endings resolving all contradictions. OLIVER TWIST Oliver Twist is a so called bildungsroman which appeared in instalments in 1837. It is set in London. It is largely autobiographical and refers to the humiliations Dickens went through during his childhood. The protagonist is depicted as thoroughly innocent and pure and remains incorruptible throughout the novel. The novel has a happy ending in which Oliver is saved from a life of villainies by a well-to-do family. Through Oliver Twist Dickens denounced some of the social problems of his age such as poverty, corruption, an unfair legal system and an underworld of thieves. He also denounced the hypocrisy of the world of the workhouses which saw poverty as the consequence of laziness and the hypocrisy of its officials, since they were disrespectful of the rights of children and of poor people in general and caused them further misery instead of helping them. Oliver Twist is an orphan who grows and works in a workhouse. One day he asks for more food for himself and the other children working there and Mr Bumble, one go those who run the workhouse, reports him to those who administer the institution. They end up expelling him and selling him for 5£ to Mr Sowerberry. He is kind to Oliver, but his wife can-t stand him and makes his life harder than before, leading the boy to run away in London. Here he falls into the hands of a gang of pickpockets whose leader is called Fagin, but is rescued by Mr Brownlown. Brownlown takes Oliver home but he gets kidnapped by the gang who force him to take part in a burglary. He gets shot during the act by the servant of the house, and later gets taken care of by Mrs Mailey, the owner and his daughter Rose. They help Oliver find Mr Brownhlow and he adopts the kid. At the end, the boy is son of a wealthy man who had an affair with Oliver’s mother. Oliver is the emblem of good and innocence. He never looses hope and always find his way through life. Fagin, on the other hand, is evil, the villain, along with Mr Bumble. Mr Brownlow is the emblem of true respectability in a society where honesty is very rare. The novel is an attack on the hypocrisies of the Victorian age and its injustices. Dickens targets the system of the workhouses and shows how miserably the children get treated and exploited. There is also a large description of the slums and Dickens describes how crime is deeply rooted in London. The novel portraits the living condition of the lower class. However, in this evil world Dickens still manages to show a glimpse of hope, when Oliver gets adopted and discovers his new identity. Dickens also deals with the theme of the destiny, as there are characters that are unable to change the course of their lives and can not free themselves. The story is narrated in third person, the omniscient narrator takes Oliver’s perspective. HARD TIMES Hard Times is a so called “denunciation novel”, a powerful accusation of some of the negative effects of industrial society. It is set in Coketown, an imaginary industrialised town which resembled many new industrial areas of the north of England. The characters are people living and working in Coketown, One of the protagonists is Thomas Gradgrind, an educator who believes in facts and statistics. The themes cover the following areas: • a critique of Materialism and Utilitarianism; • ugliness and squalor of the new industrial age; • alienation of the modern way of living; • the gap between the rich and the poor. The didactic aim is to warn against the dangers of an ever mechanised society based on efficiency which turns people into machines. Utilitarianism is a doctrine based on the fact that man's actions are driven by the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. Actions are morally right or wrong depending on their effects and institutions are good if they are useful for the material happiness of the people. It is in the light of reason that they should be judged. Religion is an old fashioned superstition: only what can be seen, touched, measured can be tackled. Utilitarianism rejects moral codes in which commands or taboos based on customs, traditions or religion clash with a rational and materialistic view of the world. Coke is a black substance that is produced from coal and is burnt to provide heat”. Coketown is made of red and black bricks because of the smoke and ashes the *“like the painted face of a savage”);
 There are also many factories, piles of buildings full of windows rattling, machineries and tall chimneys, out of which “interminable serpents of smoke .... never got uncoiled”; the piston of the steam engine worked monotonously up and down “like the head of an elephant in a state of melancholy madness”. There is a purple ill-smelling river and the streets are all very similar. People are equally like one-another, they all go in and out at the same hours. Coketown is characterized by its ugliness: everything is alike and equally unpleasant. Life is monotonous and hard; all the “material” aspects of the town (i.e. its buildings) and also the “immaterial “ ones (i.e. the relationships between its inhabitants) have been planned according to the principles of practical utility dear to the Utilitarians with the overall description of the place.
 The name “M’Choakumchild” sounds as if it were made up of two words “Choke” (suffocating) and “child”. “To choke” means “ to make somebody unable to breathe” and the polluted air of an industrial town suffocates the people: Mr Choakumchild kills his pupils’ spontaneity and creativity by basing his teaching methods on facts only. Dickens describes a typical Victorian industrial town where the air is polluted by smoke and ashes and pervaded by the poisonous smell from the canal and the river. The monotonous, melancholy and hard life of the people is reflected in the likeness between the town and its people and is emphasized by the repetition of such words as “all very like”, “equally like”, “more like”, “do the same”, “was the same”.Dickens’ criticism is also highlighted by the choice of metaphors and similes (“the painted face of a savage”, “the head of an elephant in a state of melancholy madness”, “interminable serpents of smoke”) which recall a savage and primitive world. The passage is highly descriptive and is narrated in the third- person by an omniscient narrator whose choice of negative words is a way to impress his point of view on the reader.
 psychological elements and it was very dark and gothic as well. Poe is fascinated by the human psyche. THE TELL TALE HEART The Tell tale heart is a first person narrative therefore it creates an immediate connection between the narrator and the reader, in fact the natter tries to convince the reader of his sanity. There is a very strong psychological intensity as Poe goes deep down the narrator’s mind and explores themes such as madness and obsession. Poe also uses symbols such as the evil eye and the heartbeat ti create a hunting atmosphere. The heartbeat in particular serves as a symbol of the narrator’s guilt and mental state. Suspense and tension are built during the narration. The protagonist lives with an old man and he’s obsessed with the old man’s eye. For one week, every night at midnight the man gets into the old man’s room and looks at him. But one night the old man feels the presence of the man and he’s terrified, therefore the man kills the old man and hides his body under the floor. Next morning a policeman got into the house advised by the neighbour that heard a mysterious noise. The man at the beginning is quiet, but then he starts to feel and hear the beat of the old man’s heart, in his mind. He becomes nervous and at the end he confesses the crime. THE BLACK CAT The narrator, who is also the main character, is really fond of animals and very lucky in finding a girl to marry. They lived together in a house full of animals, with a cat, his name Pluto. Pluto followed the man everywhere and he really loved the cat. The man began to drink a lot of alcohol and one night he returned home drunk. Pluto followed him, but he grabbed the cat for the throat and cut out one of his eyes. After this episode the character began to hate animals. One night his house burned down, so the couple moved. In the new house the man found another cat and he decided to take him. This cat was similar to Pluto. The story with the cat repeated. The man wanted to kill the cat, but his wife stopped him and he buried the axe in her brain. He buried her in the wall and the cat also disappeared. After a few days the police went to the man’s house, they controlled the house but they didn’t find anything. The protagonist knocked a few times to the wall, and in this moment a cry came out from the wall and they discovered the corpse of the woman with the cat. The black cat implies a first person narrative with an unreliable narrator who is consumed by alcoholism and guilt. The narrator recounts a series of disturbing events involving a black cat. The cat represents the supernatural and the narrator’s descent into moral decay. The story is ironic as the narrator is first an animal lover then perpetuates heinous acts against his pets.The Gothic atmosphere is very much present and it is represented by dark settings, mysterious events and a sense of foreboding. Themes such as guilt, remorse and consequences of immoral actions are explored. THE MODERNIST REVOLUTION The early years of the 20th century were characterized by will to reject past systems of belief, and to question the very essence of Western knowledge. This was largely due to the devastating effects of the world wars, which engaged those who survived in a quest to find new meaning within a world perceived as confusing and unstable. Examples of the transformation of the perception, and therefore the representation of reality are Charles Darwin-s scientific observations the philosophical point of Nietzsche, Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, and the new awareness of time and space by Bergson and Einstein. The relevance of Bergson is primarily connected with his conceptualization of duration and realization between time and the individual states of consciousness. Time depends entirely on persons, intimate experience of it. For Einstein time could no longer be regarded as an absolute concept independent of the perception of the single server. He introduced the notion of a spacetime continuum, therefore, time and space cannot exist separately. MODERNIST LITERATURE The term modernism is crucial in the discussion of early 20th century literature. It refers to various attempt to investigate and represent men's place and role in the modern world, a word which had witnessed gradual changes of all religious, social and ethical certainties. Modernist works are characterized by a tendency towards experimentation in narrative techniques, an interest in the working of the individual consciousness and anthropology, myth (serves as a parallel between antiquity and modern times) and a revolution in representation of time. The authors are interested in the discordance between external clock time and the time of an individuals in the consciousness. Another important influence was the development and growing popularity of the new medium of the cinema and the focus on the myriad impressions, impressions, that the word lives on one's consciousness. Epiphanies and moments of being are instants of sensitivity in which one becomes aware of the effect of external experience on the inner self. The stream of consciousness also is a fundamental theme of the Modernism and it consist on thoughts that are represented as a disorganized and interrupted flow similar to the how it actually occur in the mind. It’s based on free association. In the narration, thoughts come out as they are. Punctuation is not used. The interior monologue is basically the same thing, but thoughts don’t just come out as they are: they are understandable and readable. To dive inside the person's soul it’s necessary to follow his flow of consciousness. It’s necessary to understand that by reading the lector is inside the head of a person who is thinking, whose thoughts are wandering. The external space of modernist work is often the urban setting of the modern city, for example London or Dublin. The urban dimension embodies all the extremes and contradictions of the modern word, one hand there is the excitement of the new, but on the other there is a sense of loneliness and alienation in the space in which disintegration and fragmentary truly connect. The primary space of narration in modernist literature is the character’s mental landscape and how the events occurring in the outer word affect the person’s inner dimension. The impact of Freud and psychoanalysis is clearly visible. IMAGISM AND VORTICISM In 1912 a group of poets leD by Ezra Pound founded the Imagist movement in London. the movement advocated, the centrality of clear emphasize images in poetry. Language must be of common use and it was not meant to be merely decorative. they prefer free verses, since they expressed better than individual mood of each poem and they also believed in absolute freedom in the choice of poetic subject. Imagism then developed in Vorticism in 1914. Vorticism was more visually and verbally violent and similar to Italian futurism and it expressed the enthusiastic celebration of dynamism and the speed of the modern world. WAR POETRY A lot of poetry were written during World War I was characterized by a relatively positive, heroic and naive representation of conflict. The expression war poets does not simply denote the central topic of their production, but it is also reference to the fact that these authors were themselves soldiers. War poetry denounces the physical and psychological theories that every soldier had to endure. War was now depicted as a source of horrors, mutilations, trauma, and death. War poetry was innovative in the way it treated the subject matter, but it remain traditional in form. The time period after the war was characterized by the widespread feeling of a world ruled by chaos and absurdity. JAMES JOYCE James Joyce was born in Dublin in 1882. He studied classical studies and went to University College of Dublin, where he graduated in French and Italian. He came from a well-to-do family, his father was a supporter of Charles Parnell. He grew up in a Catholic family. He hated the stagnant atmosphere of Dublin, and he rejected nationalist movement after Parnell’s decline. He saw patriotism as a backward movement, which paralyzed free spirit and did not share enthusiasm for Gaelic revival. He left Ireland and went to live in Trieste and Rome. In Trieste he met Svevo whom he taught English. 1904 was an important year for James Joyce, since he met his wife Nora Barnacle and he began to sketch Dubliners. The role of the artist for Joyce was not to convince, but to make people see for themselves, that’s why the work should be as impersonal as possible. To make sure that the narrator carried no massages he used different points of view, narrative voices and different linguistic styles for different characters. His main Frank would give her love, life. She promised her mother to keep the house together, but she had the right to be happy and frank would have save her. The next day she was at the station, about to leave with Frank on the boat. She prayed God to help her find a way out of the distress she was feeling. The sound of the boat is associated with the loss of a loved one. It is possible to hear her disturbance in leaving. But now she can not go back. Her distress turned into nausea and she kept moving her lips in a silent prayer (just liker her mother). He was shouted to go into the boat. Eveline has a sudden urge pf huge distress, she is scared fief leaving so she attach to the balustrade. She looked at him like a helpless animal, totally impassive. Although she is in love with him and she sees a new opportunity to live in Buenos Aires she doesn’t leave (abstract). Although she has the right to be happy and free, she can’t leave because of her past traumas. James Joyce writes a story is about the paralysis of the will. It happens when someone has a strong desire of doing something, but when it’s time to actually do it that someone can not manage to do it. Eveline wants to leave behind the distress and anxiety she has but she can’t. Just like Sylvia Plath’s poetry, there is a wish to die, to stay in places with no energy and no life. It’s a psychological inertia, she can’t get out of her condition even if she wants to. She can’t get out of the loop, it’s a repetitive compulsion (term used by Freud). It’s an inner contradiction, therefore Eveline is a totally round character. The narrator is not omniscient, he doesn’t know why she doesn’t leave either. Freud used to say ‘’what we don’t learn from, we repeat’’. It’s only possible to heal by talking about it. 
 Interior monologue is used. • Evelyn: passive, subdued, trauma-bonded • Father: violent, strict, tyrannical • Frank: kind, open-hearted, hopeful, longing for a better future Antithesis: • Evelyn’s home and the new house in Buenos Aires • Paralysis and escape • Constraint and freedom • Tedious existence and exciting new life • Dust and sea, restraint and openness ULYSSES Ulysses is a novel written by James Joyce and published in 1922. It is considered one of the most influential and challenging works of modernist literature. It is set in Dublin on a single day, June 16, 1904 and it follows the experiences and inner thoughts of three main characters: Leopold Bloom (Ulysses), Stephen Dedalus (Telemacos), and Molly Bloom (wife, Penelope). Ulysses is a challenging and rewarding reading experience, exploring themes of identity, sexuality, social and political issues, and the nature of art. The narrative structure of Ulysses is complex and experimental, employing various literary styles and techniques. Each chapter presents a different perspective and explores different aspects of the characters' lives and the city of Dublin. The novel is heavily influenced by Homer's Odyssey, with each chapter paralleling an episode from the ancient epic. Leopold Bloom, a Jewish advertising salesman, represents the figure of Odysseus (or Ulysses) in the modern world. Throughout the day, Bloom navigates the city, encounters various people, and reflects on a range of topics, including. sexuality, identity, politics, religion, and mortality. Bloom's experiences and thoughts intertwine with those of Stephen Dedalus, a young writer and intellectual, who struggles with his own identity and artistic aspirations. The novel delves into the characters' consciousness, using stream of consciousness narrative techniques, wordplay, and linguistic experimentation to capture their inner thoughts, desires, and anxieties. The language in Ulysses is dense and allusive, has multiple languages and styles, reflecting Joyce's desire to capture the complexity and diversity of human experience. The final chapter, famously known as Molly Bloom's soliloquy, is a stream of consciousness monologue that provides insight into the mind of Leopold Bloom's wife. Molly reflects on her life, desires, and memories, ending the novel with a celebration of sensual and emotional fulfillment. Molly wanders, the mind goes alone, from the primroses to those who say there is no god. The flow goes from one thing to another. The lector is in her memory, and she thinks about when she met her husband starting from nature. The stream of consciousness is used to give a realistic photograph of the thoughts , although every consciousness is different. SYLVIA PLATH Sylvia Plath was born in Boston in 1932. She had a mental breakdown at the age of 20 and she was a brilliant student at high school and university. She married Ted Hughes at 24 and it was a turbulent relationship as he cheated on her. They had two children. after the separation, she suffered from depression and she committed suicide in 1963. Most poems were published posthumously. She grew up in an era where women were expected to be submissive, have a decorative role and hide their inner filings. She tried so hard to play the role of a perfect woman but gave vent to her suppressed fury in her poems and in this way she shattered the lie of decorative femininity. Her soul was haunted by repressed emotions, which seek satisfaction in her poems. Her main themes are mental anguish (sense of inadequacy, self destructive thoughts, inertia, death drive, depression, alienation and the contrast between joy and grief), femininity and motherhood (pressure of being a woman or a mother, aging, sense of loss, search for inner self, meaning of life, exploring the unconscious, nature, nurture). Introspection is the main theme. MIRROR 9 lines per stanza, no rhyme scheme. The poem delves into the theme of identity and struggle with self perception. The mirror is a metaphor for truth and it reflects the speaker’s changing appearances and emotional journey. The mirror gives back whatever it takes. It swallows what it reflects, just like the time dimension is running away from us. It is an eternal dimension, we grow old in front of a mirror. Our reflection is gone but always trapped in the mirror, and there it stays forever. Time flies faster in the mirror, it flickers, the mirror perceives time in a different way compared to the one who stands in front of it, especially women. The mirror is not simply an object, it meditates, it doesn’t just reflect. ‘’i think is my part of my heart’’: fusion of the wall and mirror The mirror is an entity (it is now a lake), it is not just a character. A woman bends over the mirror (the lake) to know what she really is, she is trying to look under the surface of the lake trying to understand beyond her own surface. The mirror perceives her look as it is being examined. The candles and the moon are both liars, they hide perfection, the mirror is clear and honest. The woman turns around, the mirror sees her back and she starts to agitate. In the mirror the woman drowned as a young girl. The young girl is not in reality anymore, that image has been taken by the mirror. She catches an image that’s not hers anymore, it’s like a glimpse, but in reality she sees an old woman. It’s like an old and grumpy fish rises from the surface of the lake . I AM VERTICAL 2 stanzas light and easy rhythm ,often slow with pauses High use of hyperbole and personification The poem explores themes such as death, resignation and acceptance of life’s inevitable end. Nature is a motif in the poem and it serves as a reflection on life and death. The poem hints at a sense of isolation and loneliness and the vertical position suggests both physical and emotional isolation. She would rather die, so that she can gleam into leaf every March, death marks a passage from the roots to the dead leaves. She is not as beauty as a garden bed. The flower dares to be beautiful and she wants to be like it. Tonight, in the light of the sun and the stars, the flowers started to emanate their odors. She feels unrelated from this nature, she feels like she doesn’t belong at all, there is a sense of alienation. The relationship between Britain and Europe had always been difficult. Britain was traditionally isolationist and had a strong sense of national superiority, therefore it did not participate in the creation of the European Economic Community (1957) and instead strengthened its alliance with the US. However, the loss of the Empire and the need to look for different commercial areas outside the Commonwealth brought Britain and Europe closer: between 1972 and 1973, Britain officially joined the European Community. However, this coincided with a terrible oil crisis, the worst since 1929. Britain's entry into the EEC responded only minimally to the country's need to broaden its markets, and this led to a renewed distrust towards Europe. ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CRISIS, MARGARET THATCHER The first few years of the 1970s were dominated by the economic crisis, tackled by Edward Heath's Conservative government with free-trade policies which tried nonetheless to safeguard British production. After the Industrial Relations Act (1971), devised to limit the right to strike, Heath began to clash with the Trade Unions. 1972 saw the highest number of strike days since 1926, the year of the General Strike. The miners proved particularly pugnacious and obtained significant pay rises. The 1974 election was an important one. The victory of the Labour Party caused a great stir within the leadership of the Conservative Party and the figure of Margaret Thatcher, who had become the party's leader in 1975, became more prominent. Margaret Thatcher's victory marked a radical change. Not only was she the first woman ever to become Prime Minister in Great Britain, but she was also the first to accomplish what became known as neo-liberalism: less state interference in the economy, privatisation of state companies and deregulation. The Iron Lady, as she was called, fought fiercely against strikes and trade unions, but also tried to reinforce her country's nationalistic spirit. THE US AT THE END OF WWII In April 1945 Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry Truman. The US were one of the two main world powers, both economically and politically, together with the Soviet Union. American supremacy in the West meant new responsibilities, which Truman dealt with by reorganising military defence and creating the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). As the CIA, the intelligence service tested during the war became an institution capable of contrasting the spread of communism and intervening directly in favour of friendly governments. The country's political climate was characterised by a widespread fear of communism, to the point that a veritable ‘witch-hunt was conducted. This fear facilitated Eisenhower’s victory. His presidency coincided with the economic boom and mass consumption: the “American way of life” became a role model. JOHN F. KENNEDY At the beginning of the 1960s democrat John F Kennedy became president. He spoke in a simple and direct manner. His slogan was “The New Frontier”. America had to face some challenge, such as the need to improve life conditions, technological development, opposition to communism and civil rights. The black minority was very discriminated and had limited rights. In 1954 racial segregation in schools was outlawed.organised black militancy followed two separate paths. • One part of the movement considered integration with the white population. The tylease of this moment was Martin Luther King, he pronounce the I have a dream speech. • The other part of the movement was led by Malcolm X. He was a separatist and theorized radical differences between blacks and whites, as he thought that violence was a valid way to protect balk pride THE VIETNAM WAR President Kennedy was murdered in Dallas in 1963, leaving the entire world in shock and disbelief. He was succeeded by his vice-president, Lyndon B. Johnson, who had to deal with the high military expenditure connected with the country's progressive involvement in Vietnam. The Vietnam War, the first and only war that America lost, undermined America’s prestige in the world. The conflict deeply divided the country, not only because of its disastrous outcome, but also because it was accompanied by the government’s lies about rapid victory, by the death of many soldiers and by motivations that were perceived as imperialist rather than libertarian. Anti-war protests worked as a powerful force for youth and university movements that were multiplying across the country. Between 1964 and 1967 they inaugurated an intense season of mobilisation against the authoritarianism and conformism of American society in favour of civil rights, especially for black people and women, whose battles were led by the feminist movement. THE NIXON YEARS The more conservative and traditionalist side of America wished for order and stability, and found their ideal represented in the Republican candidate Richard Nixon, who became president. The oil crisis, the military expense linked to the Vietnam War and the growing competition of Arab countries, Germany and Japan determined a phase of deep economic depression. Furthermore, the US's credibility was threatened by the Watergate scandal, which led to President Nixon's resignation (the first in America’s history). Nixon had representatives of the Democratic Party spied on and had the FBI carry out derogatory campaigns against them. The scandal reinforced the idea that the system of control of American democracy was alive and functioning. Later the Republicans returned to power with Ronald Reagan, whose economic recovery strategy was very similar to Margaret Tatcher’s. He also gained popularity thanks to his intense foreign activity, he promote the US as a barrier against communism evil empire. GEORGE ORWELL Orwell was in Motihari, Bengal, in 1903. He spent his first years in India, but was educated in England. He won a scholarship to Eton college. He lived partly in London and partly in Paris and took all sorts of jobs, as journalist, dish-washer, teacher. In 1933 he published Down and Out in Paris and London, which was a non-fiction account of his experiences living among the very poor. In 1936 he got married and a few months later he left for Spain to take part in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side (which opposed General Francisco Franco. Homage to Catalonia, Orwell's account of his experiences in Spain during the Civil War, testifies to the author's personal engagement in the opposition to fascism). In 1938 he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. He concentrated on writing Animal Farm (1945) and 1984 (1949), the novels which brought him success and financial reward. Orwell died in 1950. Orwell's work reflects his convictions. His writing is an attempt at turning personal experience into literature. His early writings show an almost obsessive exploration of poverty which he experienced. In Down and Out in Paris and London (1933) he describes the working-class districts where he had lived. He investigated the social environment of economically-depressed Northern England. He visited the workers’ houses, took notes about the working conditions in mines and consulted public health records. Orwell's major novels, Animal Farm (1945) and 1984 (1949) are a warning against totalitarianism and the damages it can produce in human society. The former, an allegorical tale, tells the story of a revolution organised by the animals of a farm to free themselves from man's tyranny and to establish a state based on justice and equality. Yet the leaders of the movement, the pigs, display a greed for power that leads to a cruel dictatorship. The novel has been read as a sharply satirical attack against the post-revolutionary Soviet Union and rising Stalinism. 1984, defined as a typical dystopian novel, is set in a future where individual relationships, emotions and thoughts are crushed under a dictatorial, oppressive government. Orwell wrote in a very simple, precise and direct way, he wanted to convey his message clearly, as he was aware that those who had the power manipulated people’s opinions by avoiding clarity and precision. Instead, they used vagueness and rhetoric. windmill idea, the animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project. Once Snowball becomes a scapegoat, Napoleon begins to purge the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with his old rival. Beasts of England is replaced by an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr Jones. Mr Frederick, one of the neighboring farmers, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. The animals win the battle but many get wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to take Boxer to the veterinary surgeon, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin, the cynical donkey who "could read as well as any pig", notices that the van belongs to a knacker and attempts a futile rescue. Squealer reports that the van was purchased by the hospital and the writing from the previous owner had not been repainted. But in reality, Napoleon has sold his most loyal and long-suffering worker for money to buy himself whisky. Years pass, and the pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to a single phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others". Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm". As the animals look from pigs to humans, they realize they can no longer distinguish between the two. ANIMAL FARM: CHARACTERS Boxer is a diligent and hard-working horse. He is fiercely loyal to the cause to Napoleon despite very circumstance, therefore his loyalty makes him vulnerable to exploitation. Napoleon is a cunning, manipulative pig which becomes increasingly autocratic and uses propaganda and manipulation to control the animals. Snowball, another pig, is more thoughtful and intellectual than Napoleon. He is vey charismatic and persuasive and initially believes in the principles of Animalism. Squealer is the third pig. He is skilled at using language to persuade other animals, he employs tactics such as misinformation and propaganda. Benjamin, the donkey, is cynical and pessimistic. He is very skeptical about the revolution but still is one of the most intelligent animals. Clover, a female horse, is depicted as a motherly figure: she is very compassionate and shows concerns for the well-being of the animals. She is very observant, she notices the changes of the farm but struggles to face them. The cat is a very aloof, indifferent and opportunistic character. It tends to take advantage of situations that may benefit it rather than aligning with the ideology. It focuses on self-preservation and avoids conflicts, therefore she is very survivalist. Mollie is a young, white female horse. She is very vain and childish, her only preoccupation is her personal adornment (for example ribbons and sugar), she is materialistic ands fickle, as she gets easily influenced. The sheep are taught to bleat a slogan at crucial moments to silence those who have a dissenting opinion. The dogs represent the armed forces, they enjoy considerable privileges (war attitudes). ANIMAL FARM: THEMES • Corruption of Communist ideals in the Soviet Union Animal Farm is an allegory of the Russian Revolution in which Trotsky is represented by Snowball, the Russian intelligentsia by the pigs, Stalin by Napoleon and the common people by there other animals. The story depicts the hypocrisy of the regime, as well as its corruption, violence, language and logic itself. • Use of propaganda, simplification and abuse of language The story shows how the elite class abuses language to control the lower classes, There are many slogans, such as ‘’For legs good, two legs bad’’ which becomes ‘’Four legs good, two legs better’’ and finally ‘’All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others’’. Many others are ‘’All men are enemies, all animals are comrades’’, ‘’The only good human being is a dead one’’ and slogans directly used by Napoleon (‘’Vice for Snowball and the three-day week’’, ‘’Vote for Napoleon and the full manger’’). The slogans are very simplistic, they reduce the complexity of the ideas, therefore they violate the rules of language and logic itself. Slogans initially seem to help the animals understand but they end up suffocating any dissenting option. • Politics of fear • Class stratification Animal farm points the natural tendency either to maintain or re-establish rigid class structures. When an enemy gets eliminated, society loses its unity and os fragmented by contrasting interests. • Division between intellectual and physical labour There is a strong duvudion between brainworkers and proletarians. It’s not clear whether Orwell thinks that class division is a human tendency or not, but still he emphasizes how dangerous it is in terms of freedom and democracy. • The danger of stupidity and naivety The oppressed animals are gullible since they are ignorant. They believe whatever the pigs say, they don’t even remember how life was when Jone was still part of the farm. They are not able to read and interpret reality (the instruction was mainly based on by-heart learning, they lack of rhetoric analysis) and those who can (ex. Benjamin) are indifferent to the situation therefore he contributes to tyranny, as well as those animal who show total lack of interest (ex. The cat) and those who subservience to the regime. The animal’s naivety leads Squealer to re-write and amend the seven commandments without any oppositions. WILLIAM GOLDING - LORD OF THE FLIES Lord of the flies is a novel wrote by William Golding in 1954. In the midst of a war, a plane evacuating a group of schoolboys gets shot down and lands on a deserted tropical island (the story begins with offstage events). Ralph and Piggy, two boys, find a conch shell and decide to use is it a horn to summon the other boys. Once assembled, the boys choose Ralph as their leader and Ralph nominates Jack, another boy, to hunt food for the group. Ralph, Jack and Simon explore the island and then the group builds a fire with Piggy’s glasses to attract the attention of passing ships. However, the boys focus more on playing with the fire and it ends up engulfing the whole forest, leading one of the boys to disappear (presumably burnt to death). The boys enjoy their life on the island playing and splashing in the water, however Ralph insists on maintain a fire and building huts for shelter. In fact, when a ship passes by, Ralph and Pithy notice that the fire has burnt out. Ralph is furious but the boys are gripped by a strange frenzy as the hunters have returned with their first skill. The whole situation is pure chaos, as Piggy gets hit in the face by Jack and the little boys (‘’littluns’’) have nightmares and believe there is a monster in the island. Not long after, a parachutist drifts dead on the island after a battle high above the island: Sam and Eric, who were responsible to watch the fire at night but fell asleep, report the dead body to the group thinking the beast attacked them. A hunting expedition is organized. Jack ad Ralph travel up to the mountain and after seeing the silhouette of the parachute from a distance they think it looks like a deformed ape. The two meet up with the group and Jack accuses Ralph of being a coward and says that he sold be removed from office: they boys don’t align with his mindset at first, but then the majority of them join Jack, who declares himself the leader of the new tribe of hunters. A rivalry between Jack and Ralph begins. The hunters sacrifice a sow and decapitate it, placing his head on a stake. The body of the sow is covered with flies and Simon has a terrible vision: he sees the head speaking, the voice belong to the Lord of the flies and he says that he is within all men. Simon sprints to the beach to tell the others what he saw, but as they see his shadowy figure emerge from the forest the group kill him assuming it is the beast. There is no civilization. Jack and his tribe steals Piggy’s glasses (climax of the book, as the glasses have a symbolic power since they are necessary to start a fire). The whole group is against Ralph, who hides in the forest while being hunt down. Ralph discovers and destroys the sow’s head but he is eventually forced out onto the beach by a fire set by the tribe. He collapses, he is exhausted but when he looks up he sees a British naval officer standing over him asking him about what happened. The boys and Ralph are overwhelmed and the officer turns his back so that the group can regain their composure. The book ends with the island completely destroyed and the boys rescued but scarred by their glimpses into ‘’the darkness of man’s heart’’. Themes: • Humanity’s violent ad savage impulses stronger than civilization