RIASSUNTO SLIDES PROF.GUIDO, UNISALENTO, INGLESE 3, Slide di Lingua Inglese

Scarica RIASSUNTO SLIDES PROF.GUIDO, UNISALENTO, INGLESE 3 e più Slide in PDF di Lingua Inglese solo su Docsity! There is a PRAGMATIC CORRELATION between: - SOCIO COGNITIVE SCHEMATA (background knowledge) - TEXTUAL SCRIPTS (which are typical of specialized types of discourse used in various cultures). Mediators and Translators need to know this CORRELATION, in order to avoid wrong interpretations and incoherent translation, especially in professional contexts where there are intercultural negotiations, such as economic situations or legal, political and institutional situations. Focus on 2 THEORIES: - TEXT LINGUISTICS, which is focused on conditions of text production. - DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, which is focused on conditions of text reception and interpretation. In a discourse, there are 2 figures: - a SENDER, who send the message - a RECEIVER, who receive and interpret the message. But the way a RECEIVER interprets a meaning might not coincide with the meaning that the SENDER of the message intended to communicate because their BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE (or “schemata”) can diverge when they are from different linguistic and cultural background. Text inscribes in intself its own IMPLIED RECEIVER, a textual construction by which the sender directs the interpretations of the receiver, in order to converge to his intentions. But this doesn’t always correspond to the conditions of reception of a text, because there are differences which interfering with interpretation, such as cultural, linguistic and gender. In TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC TEXTS, there is a COINCIDENCE between PRODUCTION and RECEPTION, in order to have a succesful communication. The TRANSLATORS ROLE is to INTERPRET and to CONVERT a text into the equivalent in the target language, in order to function as a discourse in a context that is different from the original one. The process of analysis and translation focus on 3 PHASES: - INTERPRETATION of the original text - NEGOTIATION between the meanings of the original culture and the target culture - PRAGMATIC RENDERING of the original text into the target text. We can see the TRANSLATION as: - a PROCESS, in the INTERPRETATION MODEL, which is based on the reformulation of the text, in order to make it accessible in the target language and culture. - a PRODUCT, in the TRANSMISSION MODEL, which see the “meaning” as inherent in the text and promoting coincidence between intentionality and interpretation. This coincidence is important in scientific and technical texts. TEXT ANALYSIS is the analysis of the process by which the sender chooses linguistic features and communicative strategies to construct a text to be actualised as DISCOURSE in social interactions. In this way, TEXT is a static configuration of linguistic signs that have to be interpreted as a DISCOURSE in particular communicative contexts. THEORIES OF TEXT LINGUISTICS: DE BEAUGRANDE & DRESSLER: HALLIDAY: Seven constitutive conditions (or Three functions of language as “standars”) of textual communication conditions of text production. which are user-centred and concern the use of text in interactions 1 - COHERENCE, the logical relations 1 - IDEATIONAL, the way in which the in which the concepts are organised in | sender organises the concepts that he a text wants to communicate through the text using COHERENCE. This Interpersonal relations are: 2 - INTERPERSONAL, the concepts 2 - INTENTIONALITY are actualised into a text in a logical 3 - INFORMATIVITY interpersonal relations. 4 - ACCEPTABILITY 5 - INTERTEXTUALITY 6 - SITUATIONALITY 7 - COHESION, is the way in which 3 - TEXTUAL, is a mediation between textual components are connected and other two functions as language makes interdependent. cohesion between sentences, in order to fuse them into texts to produce messages. The CONTINUOUS ASPECT of the verb is principally used to express actions that are INTENTIONAL. The Present Continuous Form constitutes the representation of the “MATERIAL PROCESSES OF DOING”: these processes represent actions involving the “doing of things, and, as a Semantic Representations, they are part of the Ideational Function of Language. This representation can be represented in this way: ACTOR -> MATERIAL PROCESS -> GOAL Material Processes can be: - INTRANSITIVE (John is eating) - TRANSITIVE (John is eating the sandwich) But some actions are not intentional, but simply INVOLUNTARY. The Present Simple Form constitutes the representation of the “MENTAL PROCESSES OF SENSING”: these processes are part of the Ideational Function of Language. This representation can be represented in this way: SENSER -> MENTAL PROCESS -> PHENOMENON Mental Processes are always TRANSITIVE (John knows the story) and they can be grouped as follow: 1 - PROCESSES OF AFFECTION, verbs of feelings and emotions 2 - PROCESSES OF COGNITION, verbs of mental activity 3 - PROCESSES OF PERCEPTION, verbs of the senses 1 - PROCESSES OF AFFECTION Verbs expressing the Senser’s emotional states, such as: adore, desire, detest, dislike, like, prefer, fear, hate, loathe, love. I love you - SIMPLE ASPECT: indicates a permanent, unintentional, inconscious state of mind that the sender cannot change. l’ve been loving you for more than ten years! But occasionally, there is a - CONTINUOUS ASPECT: when express senser’s intentional, conscious reflection on the duration of such state of mind. These verb are followed by a GERUNDIVE NOMINALIZATION of the verb that follows them. The NOMINALIZATION occurs according to the PROCESS OF DERIVATION, that follows this strucure: I like the skiing VERB OF FEELINGS OR EMOTIONS + DETERMINER (THE) + VERB NOMINALIZATION (-ing form) It express not an action in progress, but a general condition expressed by a noun. If the verb of Feelings or Emotions are associated with an action that may take place in the future, we have a different construction. This case difference from the previous one because of the presence of the AUXILIARY (WOULD). It follows this structure: I would like to ski VERB OF FEELINGS OR EMOTIONS + WOULD + TO INFINITIVE It expres a specific action that may be performed by the senser in the near future. 2 - PROCESSES OF COGNITION Verbs of mental activity, such as: agree, assume, believe, forget, imagine, know, mean, perceive, realize, recall, recognize, recollect, remember, seem, suppose, think, understand. | think that you are right - SIMPLE ASPECT: indicates a permanent state of mind of the senser. l’ve been thinking of you for all these years! But sometimes, there is a - CONTINUOUS ASPECT: when indicates an intentional reflection on the duration of such state of mind of the senser. When the verb expresses a fact or a possibility, it follow this structure: | believe in doing voluntary work for the african people. VERB OF MENTAL ACTIVITY + PREPOSITION + NOUN or ING NOMINALIZATION He recalled his emigrating to Italy. It is possible the addition of an ADJECTIVE (a possessive adjective, or Saxon Genitive) before the Ing-form. There are some verb of Mental Activity that are used without the PREPOSITION, that follows this structure: | understand the thinking. VERBS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY + NOUN or ING NOMINALIZATION There are some verb of Mental Activity that are followed by the THAT CONSTRUCTION, that follows this structure: Henry understands that Mary was right. VERB OF MENTAL ACTIVITY + FACT/POSSIBILITY + THAT 3 - PROCESSES OF PERCEPTION Verbs of senses that express involuntary actions, such as: feel, hear, see, smell, taste, look, notice, observe. | hear something strange. - SIMPLE ASPECT: express the perceptual states experienced as permanent by the senser. l’m listening to something interesting on the radio. However, there are some verbs that are similar but they are expressed in a - CONTINUOUS ASPECT, when they express a deliberate use of senses. But there are some EXCEPTIONS: 1- LOOK - SIMPLE ASPECT: involuntary action, such as: look on, look up to, look down on - CONTINUOUS ASPECT: deliberate action, such as: look at/on, look for/in/into/ out. 2 - FEEL - SIMPLE ASPECT: to sense, such as: angry, sad, happy, tired - CONTINUOUS ASPECT: to touch. 3 - SEE - CONTINUOUS ASPECT: to meet, to interview, to visit, and accompained by prepositions, such as: see about, see to, see somebody out/to/off. 4 - HEAR - CONTINUOUS ASPECT: to receive news or letters. Jim tried to open the door >> the door was closed. Jim wants to open it. - TRY/ATTEMPT and REMEMBER/FORGET as IMPLICATIVE VERBS when they presuppose pre-existing states. Jim tried opening the door. >> Jim opened the door. - TRY/ATTEMPT and REMEMBER/FORGET as FACTIVE VERBS when they presuppose already actualized facts. John stopped to smoke. >> passing to a new state. - STOP/FINISH as CHANGE OF STATE VERBS, they signal the passing from a pre-existing state to a new one. CONDITIONAL PROSPECTS: In dealing with the notion of CONDITION, we need to remember that: - in ITALIAN GRAMMAR: Conditional is a Mood, with Indicative and Subjunctive. - in ENGLISH GRAMMAR: Conditional is only an Indicative Mood. It represent a modalization of the Present Tense in both Simple and Perfect Aspect by MODAL AUXILIARIES: - WOULD and SHOULD, which are the Past Tense of the Present Tense WILL and SHALL, but in this context they are not meant as Past. The semantic notion of Conditional implies the setting of conditions in the present for the realization of a process in the future. WILL/WOULD: express VOLITION and INTENTION SHALL/SHOULD: express DETERMINATION and OBLIGATION. - Speaker's PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE FROM or PSYCHOLOGICAL PROXIMITY TO Listener, achieved by activating in his mind the IDEATIONAL FUNCTION of language. - Speaker's SOCIAL DISTANCE FROM or SOCIAL PROXIMITY TO Listener by INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION. 1 - WILL you wait for me? Speaker ask in present time to inquire into listener’s future intention. Speaker is psychologically and socially closer to listener, and “will” marks informal style and direct tone. 2 - WOULD you wait for me? Question referred to present time, to inquire into listener’s future intention. Speaker is psycologically and socially more distant from listener, and “would” marks formal style and tentative tone. Halliday's notions of TONE and STYLE are connected to his view of REGISTER. In particular, TONE and STYLE are aspects of TENOR. In this ways: - TENTATIVE TONE signals FORMAL STYLE, which indicates SOCIAL and PSYCOLOGICAL DISTANCE between Speaker and Listener. (MOULD/SHOULD) - DIRECT TONE signals INFORMAL STYLE, which indicates SOCIAL and PSYCOLOGICAL PROXIMITY between Speaker and Listener. (WILL/SHALL) In POLITICAL DISCOURSE, these uses of WOULD and SHOULD are evident. PRESENT CONDITIONAL: Would/Should + Infinitive of the main verb. A. | would/should work. | l'’d work. N. 1 would/should not work. | | wouldn’t/shouldn’t work. I. Would/Should | work? IN. Would/Should | not work? | Wouldn't/Shouldn't | work? PERFECT CONDITIONAL: Would/Should + Perfect Infinitive of the main verb. A. | would/should have worked. | l’d have worked. N. 1 would/should not have worked. | | wouldn°t/shouldn’t have worked. I. Would/Should | have worked? IN. Would/Should | not worked? | Wouldn't/Shouldn’t | have worked? The Conditional dimensions of the verb is used to express various degrees of possibility that an action or event will take place in the future. These degrees are: TIPE 0 - ABSOLUTE CERTAINTY It express universal truths and it underlying the relation of CAUSE-EFFECT. It involves the TEXT BASIS, BOTTOM-UP INFERENCING. The structure is: IF + PRESENT SIMPLE, PRESENT SIMPLE. If you don't eat, you die. TIPE ] - PROBABILITY It express the probability that the action or event indicated in the conditional clause will happen in the future. lt underlying the relation of ENABLEMENT. It involves the BRIDGING, TOP-DOWN INFERENCING. The structure is: IF + PRESENT SIMPLE, FUTURE SIMPLE. If I learn English, | shall communicate with my foreign friends. TIPE 2 - POSSIBILITY, HYPOTHESIS AND AN IMAGINARY CONDITION It may be informed by causality relations of REASON-CONSEQUENCE. It involves the BRIDGING, TOP-DOWN INFERENCING. The structure is: IF + PAST SIMPLE, PRESENT CONDITIONAL. - TEXT BASED, BOTTOM-UP INFERENCING: is the reader’s automatic achievement of information from the text -BRIDGING, TOP-DOWN INFERENCING: reader’s non automatic connections as inferences are achieved not simply from the text, but from the reader’s knowledge of the world. -ELABORATIVE/EVALUATIVE INFERENCING: reader’s achievement of information by answering question with: WHO/WHICH, WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, HOW, WHY. DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE: it provides a definition to the world ANTECEDENT to the Relative Clause without commas (in writing), or a pause (in speaking). - WHO: animate antecedent - WHOM: object position for animate antecedent - WHICH: inanimate antecedent - THAT: both animate and inanimate antecedent - WHOSE: possessive relative pronoun for animate and inanimate antecedents, meaning of WHOM/WHICH. It can be preceded by a preposition. Relative pronoun who/whom, which, that can be omitted when it is not subject of the relative clause and the preposition preceding the relative pronoun follows instead the verb. NON DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE: additional information about the antecedent without defining it, enclosed between commas (in writing) and mini-pauses (in speaking). Thet can be omitted without changing sentence meaning. TAXIS, or CLAUSE INTERCONNECTIONS, is of 2 types: - PARATAXIS: express the relationship of COORDINATION between two clauses with interdependent meaning. Halliday defines them as: PRIMARY (or INITIATING) and SECONDARY (or CONTINUING) clauses. They are correlated by the LINK-WORDS: and, or, but, so, thus, especially, particularly and by the EXPRESSIONS: in other words, for example, to be precise, that is to say, for this reason, in fact, as well as. - HYPOTAXIS: express the relationship of SUBORDINATION between two clauses with incomplete meaning. Halliday defines them as: PRIMARY (or DOMINANT) and SECONDARY (or DEPENDENTY) clauses. They are correlated by relative pronouns: which, who, whom, that, whose, introducing the dependent clause. - EMBEDDING: follows tactic principles that interconnect constituents within the same clause. lt regards a SINGLE CLAUSE constituted by two element (or phrases) that are, HEAD and POST-MODIFIED. - PARATACTIC CLAUSE-RELATIONSHIP: employed when the writer chooses to join two aspects of his message as independent clauses conveying an equal contribution to the meaning of the text. Purpose: a balanced coordination and accord between different positions. - HYPOTACTIC AND EMBEDDING CLAUSE-RELATIONSHIP: used when the writer considers one of the clauses as dominant and subordinates the other clauses to it. Purpose: the writer prefers the position expressed in the dominant clause to the other opposite position in the subordinate clause. MORPHOLOGY: is the field of Linguistics that studies the structure and meaning of words. It is linked to both syntax and semantics: - SYNTAX deals with the structure - SEMANTICS with the meaning of the sentences. MORPHOLOGY deals with the SYNTAX of parts of words, or MORPHEMES, and with the SEMANTICS of their lexical meanings. Understanding how words are formed and what semantic meanings they convey enables people to recognize words and their meanings. MORPHEMES are structural elements of meaning classified into two types: - FREE MORPHEME: a lexical item with the form of an individual word with a complete meaning. lt can stand alone as a word in a sentence. - BOUND MORPHEME: a lexical item incorporated into a word as dependent part. lt cannot stand alone, but must be connected to another morpheme. They interconnect by means of: 1- DERIVATION PROCESS: is that part of Morphology concerned with the way morphemes are connected to lexical forms as AFFIXES. AFFIXES are of two typical types: - PREFIXES are attached at the beginning of the word (de-, dis-, un-, pre-, post-) - SUFFIXES are attached at the end of the word (-able, -age, -hood, -er, -ly) 2 - INFLECTION PROCESS: adapts existing words without changing their category. We can see: - VERB SUFFIXES: -s for Present Simple, -ed in Past Simple, -ing for Continuous, Gerund and Present Participle. - NOUN SUFFIXES: -s for Plural, ‘s for Saxon Genitive - ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES: -er for Comparative, -est for Superlative. 3 - COMPOUNDING PROCESS: is a process by which single words can be joined together to form a NEW COMPOUND WORD, whose meaning is given by the sum of the two meanings. The latter establishes the grammatical category of the new word. We can see: - NOUN + NOUN - ADJECTIVE + NOUN - VERB + NOUN - PREPOSITION + NOUN - ADJECTIVE + ADJECTIVE