Shakespeare and Language, Sintesi del corso di Cultural Studies

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Shakespeare and Language Ideas About Language in the Renaissance  Juliet's Lament on Names:  Juliet in "Romeo and Juliet" expresses frustration that Romeo's name identifies him as part of her family's enemy.  She muses that a name is not a physical part of a person; it is an arbitrary label.  A rose, she argues, would smell as sweet by any other name, suggesting that names are arbitrary and do not affect the essence of what they denote.  Aristotelian View on Language:  Juliet represents the Aristotelian perspective: names are arbitrarily attached to objects by human convention and have no inherent connection to the things they denote.  This view was the majority perspective during the Renaissance.  Language and meaning are seen as products of custom and agreement rather than intrinsic connections.  Platonic View on Language:  Contrasting the Aristotelian view, the Platonic perspective suggests that there is a non- arbitrary, inherent connection between words and their meanings.  Words, according to this view, possess an essence that connects them to what they denote.  This perspective implies that certain words are intrinsically linked to their meanings beyond mere human convention.  Renaissance Context:  The two views on language were well-known and interwoven in popular writings of the time.  Writers and thinkers often drew on both perspectives, sometimes vacillating between them due to the rhetorical methods of the period.  Rhetorical teaching emphasized the arrangement and treatment of material over reaching conclusive answers, reflecting the Renaissance thinkers' theological perspective on human certainty.  The Allure of the Platonic View:  Despite its perceived irrationality, the Platonic view had a persistent allure because of its implications for magic, religion, and early science.  The idea that language could inherently do things and affect reality was compelling and retained a certain attractiveness. "Cogitations, Words, Letters" Chapman's Translation of Homer's Iliad:  In Book 5, Chapman describes the death of Pedæus with grotesque anatomical detail, emphasizing the tongue as the "Organe of his speech."  This reflects the Renaissance view that language was fundamentally about speech, not writing. Spoken words were considered the true form of language, with writing being a mere secondary representation.  Aristotelian Hierarchy of Language:  The Renaissance held an Aristotelian view where spoken words were representations of mental images (cogitations), and letters were representations of spoken words.  This hierarchy placed actual things in the world as the primary reality, with language being a secondary representation of these realities.  Francis Bacon, quoting Aristotle, distinguishes between "words" (oral) and "letters" (written).  Plato's Critique of Writing:  Plato's "Phaedrus" discusses the invention of writing by the Egyptian god Theuth and its potential negative effects on memory and knowledge.  Writing was seen as inferior to speech because it was just an image of speech and could lead to apparent knowledge without true understanding.  Practical and Functional View of Language:  Language was viewed pragmatically, with its primary function being to communicate ideas efficiently.  Renaissance thinkers believed that ideas existed independently of language, and language's purpose was to convey these ideas to others.  The rise of scientific practice in the seventeenth century introduced the idea of a "mathematical" language with a one-to-one relationship between words and ideas.  Some thinkers, like Francis Mercury van Helmont, combined scientific and occult views, attempting to prove that Hebrew characters were non-arbitrary and divinely taught. Francis Bacon's Perspective:  Bacon acknowledges the appeal of the Adamic theory, which posits that names are derived by reason and have inherent meanings.  However, he concludes that this theory is elegant but ultimately unfruitful and that the arbitrary nature of language is more consistent with experience.  Despite the dominance of the Aristotelian view, Platonic non-rationalism remained influential in Renaissance thought about language. "Souls, Discourse, Humanity" The debate between Aristotelian and Platonic views on language and the soul was central to Renaissance thought. Dismissal of Original Language: o Pedro Mexía dismisses the notion of an "original" language, considering it one of many erroneous beliefs. o Despite this, the idea of an original language, often associated with Adam and Eve, held significant allure during the Renaissance. Aristotelian vs. Platonic Views on the Soul: o Aristotelian View: The soul is a blank slate (tabula rasa) at birth, capable of learning any language it first hears. o Platonic View: The soul possesses all knowledge before birth but forgets it upon entering the body. Learning is essentially remembering this lost knowledge. o According to Plato, if not for the languages we hear growing up, we would naturally speak the original language of Adam and Eve. Herodotus' Experiment: o Mexía recounts a story from Herodotus about King Psammeticus of Egypt, who tried to discover the original language by raising children in isolation. The children eventually uttered "Bec," a Phrygian word for bread, leading some to believe Phrygian was the original language. o Mexía dismisses this by referencing St. Augustine, who argued that the children could have imitated sounds from the goats they were raised with. Language as Learned Imitation: o Mexía and St. Augustine argue that language is learned by imitation, not by innate knowledge or instinct. o Language learning is distinguished from natural instincts like suckling or crying, which occur without instruction. Aristotelian Emphasis on Memory: o Huarte, following Aristotle, emphasizes that language learning relies on memory rather than understanding or imagination. o Children, with their strong memories but less developed understanding, learn languages more easily than adults. Discourse and Reason: o Language is not the same as reason. Although language enables communication of reasonable thoughts, it is learned through memory. o Discourse refers to the use of language with understanding and intention, distinguishing human speech from mere vocalization or imitation. Ethical and Theological Distinctions: o The ability to modulate voice into communicative discourse is seen as a key distinction between humans and animals. o Renaissance thinkers grappled with the implications of silent humans or those with disordered speech, often questioning their humanity. "Plainness and Copia: Language as Ethics" Distrust of Language: o William Cornwallis criticizes the redundancy and superfluity of language, preferring direct observation over verbal descriptions. o He believes that language is an imperfect interpreter of nature's language (the one Adam named animals with), which requires much effort and often misleads. Language as a Potential Source of Sin: o William Perkins emphasizes the need for careful use of the tongue, which can lead to sin if not governed by reason. o The tongue's mobility and potential for independent action create anxiety, as it might speak nonsense or worse. Anti-Ornament School: o Juan Huarte criticizes the use of eloquence, seeing it as a lower-level cognitive skill associated with memory and imagination rather than understanding. (Memory: lower-level cognitive skills/ understanding: higher- level cognitive skills) o He is part of a Renaissance view (anti-ornament school) that opposed rhetorical ornamentation because it could manipulate audiences through emotional appeal rather than logical truth. o Huarte values discourse that demonstrates true understanding and bases its persuasive power on the truth and logic of the arguments. (Unlike eloquence) Eloquence: o primarily involving rote-learned figures (with memory), rather than involving deep understanding. o Trivial (unimportant) and deceitful because it focuses on style over substance. Fallibility of Language: o Francis Bacon warns about the deceptive nature of language (We are not in control of our language), which can pervert judgment. o He highlights the need for clear definitions to avoid semantic debates and the inescapable conventionality of language (conventional nature of language means that we can find ourselves saying things we did not think). o Language is inherently fallible, because humans are imperfect o Refers to the Fall and the Babel myth Classical Rhetorical Tradition: o The classical rhetorical tradition, embraced by Renaissance humanist educators, offered a more positive view of language compared to the skeptical views of those who distrusted language. o This tradition emphasized language as a powerful tool for expressing reason and truth. o Copia: The concept of copia celebrated the ability of languages to express the same idea in various ways through synonyms and varied phrasing. o 1611 Authorized Version of the Bible: The translators defended the use of linguistic variation. They argued against rigid uniformity in phrasing, emphasizing the freedom to use different words to express the same idea. o They believed that the essence of the message was more important than the exact words used. o They argued that if God used various words to describe the same concept, then they too could use different words. Renaissance intellectuals, while celebrating the power of the spoken word and its spiritual associations, were acutely aware of its fleeting nature. Robinson in his "Pronuntiation" articulates this, noting that speech is made of air and immediately disappears upon being uttered. Each sound throws the previous one out, giving the ear only a brief touch of air to convey the message to the mind. This ephemeral quality of speech posed a risk to the ethical and educational benefits of communication. The Need for Writing Without writing, any spoken teachings or wise sayings would only last as long as they were being spoken or remembered. This would lead to the quick perishing of human knowledge and customs. Writing, though considered a secondary and imperfect version of speech, provided a solution to this problem by ensuring the durability of human knowledge. Despite being described as "dumb and more dull" compared to speech, writing's physicality allowed it to endure over time, thus preserving the labor and wisdom of forefathers. Characteristics of writing: 1. The Physicality and Endurance of Writing Robinson contrasts the fleeting nature of speech with the durability of writing. He acknowledges that while speech is more ethereal and spiritual, writing is more substantial and enduring. Writing, represented as "the hand," is physically more gross but also more durable than the airy sounds of speech. 2. Writing and Communication Across Space and Time John Wilkins, in his work "Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger," highlights another advantage of writing: its ability to communicate across both geographical space and time. Writing allows discourse not only across distances but also across ages. This illustrates writing's potential to preserve and convey thoughts long after the original spoken words have disappeared. Shakespeare's Society and Textuality Renaissance society was in a transitional phase from orality to literacy. While texts were increasingly prevalent, the society did not fully perceive itself as textual. Words were still primarily acoustic rather than visual. In Shakespeare’s time, while texts were abundant and literacy was on the rise, language was still considered something that existed fully in the spoken form. Playtexts, for example, were seen as records or bases for spoken performances, not complete in themselves. Legal documents were considered records of spoken pledges or evidence, rather than evidence or contracts in their own right. This oral-centric view was beginning to shift, but for Shakespeare and his contemporaries, language was still primarily about the interaction between spoken words and the ear. IDEAS ABOUT LANGUAGE IN SHAKESPEARE DISCOURSE, ARTIFICE AND SILENCE Language as a Divine Gift The ethereal quality of speech (breath cast into the air) in the Renaissance linked language to divinity and reason. The ability to use language was considered a divine gift that distinguished humans from beasts, as it allowed them to reason and communicate their thoughts. Example: character of Caliban in "The Tempest," who, despite his monstrous nature, becomes more human through his acquisition of language, even if he uses it to curse. Language as a Social and Rational Tool: Language in the Renaissance was deeply social and public While language could elevate a creature to human status, its misuse or abandonment could lead to a descent from humanity. Example: character of Ajax in "Troilus and Cressida." Ajax, swollen with pride and focused on single combat with Hector, becomes unable to distinguish social ranks, thereby losing his humanity. He becomes "languageless" like a parrot—capable of making sounds but not of rational speech. This misapplication of "discourse" highlights the importance of language being used in a rational, social context. Without reason, language loses its meaning and becomes mere noise. Language in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: In "Romeo and Juliet," the transformation in Romeo's use of language reflects his emotional journey from infatuation (short-lived love or passion) with Rosaline to true love for Juliet. Initially, Romeo's love for Rosaline is conventional and superficial, leading to clichéd speech typical of the stereotypical Renaissance lover. When Romeo falls for Juliet, however, his language transforms. He re-engages in social wordplay, as seen in the exchange with Mercutio where Romeo adeptly plays on words like "counterfeit" and "slip." This kind of punning wordplay was a sign of social intelligence and engagement in the Renaissance. Sociable, Art, and Nature in the Renaissance In the Renaissance, certain terms had different meanings than they do today. Here’s what they meant:  Sociable: Being able to engage in clever and witty conversation. It meant fitting in well with society by showing intelligence and control over your language.  Art: This didn’t just mean creating things. It referred to the skillful and deliberate use of language. People in the Renaissance valued language that was carefully crafted and showed the speaker’s education and reason.  Nature: Instead of meaning pure and good, ‘nature’ referred to something simple and untrained, even foolish. A ‘natural’ was seen as someone who acted without reason or sophistication. 'Art' and 'nature' are significant terms in Renaissance conceptions of language. While 'art' signifies the learned craft of language use, 'nature' can imply chaos without rational control. Understanding these terms within the Renaissance context helps grasp the cultural and intellectual backdrop of Shakespeare's time, where the artificial was positively viewed as a human potential to counteract the bestial chaos of nature. Language and Control For people in the Renaissance, skillful use of language was a sign of education and reason. They believed that language should be crafted carefully, not just spill out spontaneously. This careful crafting, or ‘art,’ was what made language meaningful and intelligent. Understanding these terms helps us see how Renaissance thinkers valued the careful and reasoned use of language. The Human and the Bestial In Shakespeare's works, the absence of 'discourse' and 'reason' defines the non- human. Hamlet's reflections illustrate this, noting that without these faculties, humans are no better than beasts. To be truly human is to demonstrate reason through engaging in structured, sociable discourse. This involves using precepts, common figures, and organizing arguments in a learned, crafted manner. Modern academic critics often view Shakespeare’s wordplay with a mix of admiration and frustration. While some, like Stephen Booth, highlight the intricate patterns of phonetic and semantic echoes in Shakespeare’s language, others argue that these puns can seem gratuitous and non-essential to the plot. This critical unease stems from the perception that puns rely on arbitrary connections between words rather than meaningful linguistic play.  The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and cultural movement that emerged in Europe during the late 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. 5. Enlightenment and the Shift in Language: During the Enlightenment, the approach to language and puns changed significantly. Critics began to see puns as trivial because they seemed to connect words based on superficial similarities in sound rather than substantive meaning. This shift is evident in definitions of puns by figures like Addison, who emphasized the use of words that sound alike but have different meanings, viewing this as a form of linguistic triviality. 6. Rhetorical Terms and Definitions: In Shakespeare's time, the rhetorical terms for wordplay included antanaclasis (repetition of a word with different meanings), syllepsis (a word used once with multiple meanings), paronomasia (words that sound alike but have different meanings), and asteismus (a witty reply). These terms indicate a sophisticated understanding of linguistic play, where the emphasis was on the intellectual exercise and wit involved in such exchanges. 7. The Role of Dictionaries and Standardization: The development of dictionaries and language standardization in the eighteenth century further reinforced the perception of puns as involving separate words linked by chance resemblances in sound. The standardization of spelling made words seem fixed and unchangeable, which made puns seem trivial and random. 8. Valuing Wordplay in the Renaissance: Wordplay in the Renaissance was valued for its ability to require language users to differentiate meanings from a single semantic space. This contrasts with the modern view of puns as trivial, highlighting a historical shift in the understanding and appreciation of linguistic complexity.