American Literature: A Selection of Authors and Their Works, Appunti di Letteratura Americana

Scarica American Literature: A Selection of Authors and Their Works e più Appunti in PDF di Letteratura Americana solo su Docsity! A HISTORY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE What do we mean with ‘A History of American Literature’? History: It is linked with events that happened in the past; the selection of events depends on our reasons and on the story we want to tell, this is why history can turn out in a lot of different ways. American: In American Studies, “American” can refer to the whole continent. But this is not something only connected to a geographical area. However it is also a question of national identity. American literature is influenced by cultural practices from Canada, Latin America, the Caribbean Islands or Native Americans, enslaved people, immigrants. American literature is not an exclusively English phenomenon because other European, Native American, African, or Asian languages are also part of its body of works. Literature: It refers to all the literary texts which can be: oral or written; fiction or non-fiction; includes a lot of different text types and genres (drama, prose, poetry, speeches..). In conclusion, American literature refers to all written and oral literary works produced in the area of the United States and its preceding colonies, regardless of the language. American literature is often divided into five major periods: 1. Pre-Colonial Period – ca. 1620 2. Colonial Period ca. 1620 – 1800 3. The American Renaissance ca. 1800 – 1865 4. Realism and Naturalism ca. 1865 – 1914 5. Modernism ca. 1914 – 1945 6. Contemporary Literature ca. since 1945 The literary texts are grouped in these periods since they share particular elements and features, according to historical, sociological and political events. For this reason, there will be always be alternatives in the way literary texts are grouped because of the point of view of different people. PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD (-1620) According to the most generally accepted theory, the very first settlement of humans in Americas happened 28,000 years ago from Southern Asia via South Sea Islands. Then, another wave of migration took place approximately 14,000 years ago via Beringia, a land bridge which connected the two continents across what is now the Bering Strait. So, in North America there was no cultural and linguistic homogeneity: Native people spoke hundreds of languages belonging to entirely different linguistic families and structured their societies in widely diverse forms, causing rivalries and wars between different tribes. American literature begins with the orally transmitted myths, legends, tales, and songs of Native American cultures. They passed from one generation to the next for purposes of historiography, education and celebration. Some of the most important features that are common to the most part of these texts are:  power of words, there is a certain sort of magic by using words;  significance of dreams, through dreams they could get messages from the spiritual world;  personality (of all elements of creation);  dualism, there are always two parts that form a whole. The most important pair: Father Sky & Mother Earth that resemble the idea of life;  Nature is a spiritual as well as physical mother; it is alive and endowed with spiritual forces; main characters may be animals or plants, often totems associated with a tribe, group, or individual;  4 world quarters;  syncretic religion;  Hierarchy (spirit world – humans – animals – plants – physical - geography – natural elements)  all these elements have to interact, staying in harmony;  literature is conceived as a communal text; there is no individual authorship since the literary text is considered a cultural property of the whole tribe. There was no written literature as these song, poems and tales were all recorded in the 19 th and 20th century and translated into English. TEXTS Native American Literature was characterized by different types of texts:  Song-poems;  Speeches;  Ritual drama (with or without words);  Formulas (for dances or performances);  Stories, which can be divided in creation stories and trickster tales. CREATION STORIES During this ancient period people started to wonder about how the world began, how it was created. The purpose of a Creation story is to illustrate it. They explained the present through an imagined past, and this became the foundation of communal beliefs. Song of Creation: This text is usually referred as a “Song Call”. There is a creator figure as a speaker and it may have been recited as a “call and response” . The first group says something which is then repeated by the second one, even if sometimes there are some variations which provide new information (ex. while in the first part we have the repetition of the word ‘sun’, in the second one we have ‘moon’). The text was transmitted orally from one generation to another. This is why quality of sound and repetitions are particularly important, it helped people to keep the words in mind, maybe also together with some moves and dances. It was the wind: This text comes from the Navajo tribe. It emphasizes the importance of the word “wind” which includes a certain kind of dualism: on one hand it represents life, on the other death, as “when it ceases to blow we die”. The wind does not represent only a god, or holy person, but also a means of communication, the act of breathing, and every Navajo’s soul. The Iroquios creation story: Long before the world was created there was an island, floating in the sky, upon which the Sky People lived. They lived quietly and happily. No one ever died or was born or experienced sadness. However one day one of the Sky Women realized she was going to give birth to twins. She told her husband, who flew into a rage. In the center of the island there was a tree which gave light to the entire island since the sun hadn't been created yet. He tore up this tree, creating a huge hole in the middle of the island. Curiously, the woman peered into the hole. Far below she could see the waters that covered the earth. At that moment her husband pushed her. She fell through the hole, tumbling towards the waters below. Water animals already existed on the earth, so far below the floating island two birds saw the Sky Woman fall. Just before she reached the waters they caught her on their backs and brought her to the other animals. Determined to help the woman they dove into the water to get mud from the bottom of the seas. One after another the animals tried and failed. Finally, Little Toad tried and when he reappeared his mouth was full of mud. The animals took it and spread it on the back of Big Turtle. The mud began to grow and grow and grow until it became the size of North America. Then the woman stepped onto the land. She  Meditative literature;  Literature to aid in religious education;  Importance of plainness & humility of author & text. TEXTS JOHN SMITH – HISTORY OF VIRGINA, NEW ENGLAND AND THE SUMMER ISLES In 1607, the first English settlers arrived in North America and established a small fort and settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. This town, aside from a brief period of abandonment in 1610, was the first permanent English settlement on the mainland of North America, and served as the capital of the colony of Virginia until 1699. This book, written by Captain John Smith, who is perhaps one of the most famous of the early colonists, recounts the establishment of English colonies in North America. It contains detailed accounts of the surveying of the coast of Virginia and New England by Smith, the founding of Jamestown, the colony of Bermuda and the arrival of the Mayflower Pilgrims in Massachusetts. Smith includes also several maps and engraved illustrations to accompany the text. Some of the most illuminating passages relate to Smith's relationship with the Powhatan people, particularly his capture by Wahunsunacawh (Chief Powhatan) and his subsequent rescue by the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, as well as the account of the life of Pocahontas. In writing this book, Smith fell out of favour of the Virginia Company, which had financed the voyages to America and owned a monopoly on the produce of the new colonies. Smith's account rarely mentions the involvement of the Company, instead glorifying his own endeavours and those of his associates. JOHN WINTHROP - A MODEL OF CHRISTIAN CHARITY A Sermon was meant to raise ‘good spirits’ and create a contact, a bound, between God and his people. This sermon was given by John Winthrop (1588 to 1649) to his Puritan fellows during their journey to North America aboard the Arbella. The sermon centres on religious education, although the speech may also be considered a form of indoctrination. In “A Model” Winthrop reflects on the premises of Puritan values, but also aims to prepare the Puritan voyageurs for their life in North America, ensure the survival of the community, and provide the community with hope of their success – if the Puritans adhere to their religious commands. He wanted them to be convinced that thet are actually part of the covenant with God, they need to prove themselves worthy and a model community. This text became famous for one particular phrase: “we shall be as a city upon a hill.” THE BAY PSALM BOOK – PSALM 23: THE LORD TO ME A SHEPHERD IS Psalm 23, often just referred to as "The Lord is My Shepherd," is the most well known of all the psalms. According to tradition, all of the psalms were written by King David, one of the earliest kings of Israel, the king who killed Goliath. Psalm 23 compares God to a shepherd guiding his people. God comforts people facing death and is a kind master who makes sure everyone in God's house is fed properly. The Lord (God) acts as a shepherd to the speaker. He makes sure the speaker isn't lacking any necessities. The Lord takes the speaker to peaceful and relaxing places, like green fields and calm waters. He also tends to spiritual well-being, making sure that the speaker stays on the right path. The speaker walks through the valley of the shadow of death, but he doesn't need to be afraid. The Lord will continue to protect him like a shepherd protects his sheep. Even when his enemies are at hand, the speaker can enjoy a fine banquet thanks to the generosity of the Lord. He lives in abundance, even luxury, with rich oils and more wine than his cup can handle. This happy state of affairs will continue for the rest of the speaker's life, and beyond. He doesn't ever plan to leave the protection of his host and shepherd. A "psalm" is not really a form, it's more of a genre. The psalms are considered "praise songs" and they were probably meant to be sung as music. This is why we have hymn meter (i.e. ballad meter), that is iambic tetrameter alternating with iambic trimester; the rhyme scheme is abab or abcb. It was structured in this why so that people could remember it easily. It was translated by King James and his version takes a different pattern in his form. ANNE BRADSTREET – THE FLESH AND THE SPIRIT “The Flesh and the Spirit" was published in 1650. The poem is a conversation between Flesh and Spirit, which Bradstreet personifies as two arguing sisters. There is tension between these two aspects of human nature, and in the poem, Bradstreet explores some of the most important and ubiquitous questions within the Puritan faith. Based on Puritan ideology, it is clear which one of the sisters will "win," or have the figurative last word, but the conversation between the two brings up some realistic quandaries surrounding faith. Flesh asks her sister why she prefers to survive on meditation alone, and how quiet contemplation can be satisfying. Flesh wants to try to show Spirit some sense and let her see that substance lies in variety. Earth is full of riches like silver, gold, and pearls, which can all give a person pleasure. The two sisters have different fathers – Flesh is born of Adam and Spirit is born of God. Spirit claims that the city above is finer than anything on Earth. There is no need for a candle or torchlight, because there is never darkness. According to the Puritan ideology Spirit predictably "gets the last word" in the conversation between the two sisters. ANNE BRADSTREET – TO MY DEAR AND LOVING HUSBAND The poet speaks to her husband, celebrating their unity and saying that there is no man in the world whose wife loves him more. If there was ever a wife more happy with her husband, the poet asks those women to compare themselves to her. She prizes her husband's love more than gold or the riches of the East. Rivers cannot quench her love and no love but his can ever satisfy her. There is no way she can ever repay him for his love. She believes they should love each other so much that when they die, their love will live on. Marriage was a central relationship in Puritan society. Men and women married young and were expected to remain together until they died. Puritan society did not tolerate divorce or adultery. Husbands and wives were supposed to adhere to the Biblical definition of marriage, which emphasized mutual love and respect. However, Puritans were not supposed to place all of their efforts in the relationship on Earth, but rather, to glorify God through their union, it wasn’t supposed to distract them from devotion to God. In Bradstreet’s sonnets, her erotic attraction to her husband is central, and these poems are more secular than religious. THE GREAT AWAKENING – DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE Since the early 18th century Enlightenment (age of Reason/ self-reliance/ self-determination > higher opinion of the individual than in Puritanism) with its emphasis on reason, pragmatism, and Deism questioned and undermined religious authority further. While these developments fostered social transformations, the (first) Great Awakening in the 1730s functioned as a countermovement against an increasing secularization of colonial society. Beginning in the 1670s the English Colonies grew enormously in population from 111.000 to 1.600.000 in 1760. This expansion led to greater religious and cultural diversity in the cultural, as well as in literary production. This event decreased the influence of Puritanism in the colonies. This also brought to the decline of the distinction between secular (VA) and religious colonies (MA). From 1750 to 1800 (Revolutionary Period) the conflict between the North American colonies and the British government intensified and eventually led to the American War of Independence (1775 to 1783), the Declaration of Independence (1776), and the foundation of the United States of America. PHILLIS WHEATLEY – ONE BEING BROUGHT FROM AFRICA TO AMERICA On Being Brought From Africa to America is an unusual poem because it was written by a black woman who was a slave back in the days when black people could be bought and sold at will by white owners. Phillis Wheatley was abducted from her home in Africa at the age of 7 in 1753 and taken by ship to America, where she ended up as the property of one John Wheatley, of Boston. She took the surname of this man, as was the tradition, but her first name came from the slave ship The Phillis, which brought her to America. In line one, the speaker says that it was great luck that she was brought from Africa (the 'Pagan land') to America. In the first part she says that coming to America introduced her to Christianity, which has brought her peace and salvation that she didn't even know she needed. In the second part there is a shift: the author uses the third person, writing about 'some' people rather than herself. She states that some people scorn the African races, saying that their dark skin is a mark of inferiority or perhaps even evil - the 'diabolic die' refers to a taint by the devil. Then she concludes the poem with a strong command for Christians to remember that Blacks can also become spiritual and educated ('refin'd') and that they are just as worthy of a place in society and in heaven ('the' angelic train') as whites. PHILLIS WHEATLEY – TO THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE, IN NEW ENGLAND In the ringing tones of a sermon, the slave poet draws a clear distinction between herself and the Harvard College students she is writing to. Wheatley opens with a statement about how she was brought from Africa, “land of errors.” In contrast, the students have had the privilege of studying, calling them “sons of science”. However, she wants to remind them that the most important knowledge they will ever have is that Jesus died to redeem them and all other sinners. The two major notes that Wheatley strikes repeatedly in the poem are her race and the urgency of renouncing sin. A devout Christian, she does not simply witness God’s mercy, but she testifies to the power and glory of the merciful God who brought her safely from a dark place; it is possible that she is referring to Africa, but she may also refer to the slave ship that transported her to America where, though well treated, she is still enslaved. Again she draws attention to her race and servitude by reminding the students that an “Ethiop” (African) is warning them that sin leads to ruin and damnation. By implication, she wants to make them understand that enslaving humans is one such deadly sin. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN Benjamin Franklin grew up in poor circumstances and received very little education in his childhood. For many, however, Franklin represents the prototypical American of the Enlightenment Era. Working as a publisher, printer, politician (i.e. signer of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution), author, diplomat (first U.S. ambassador to France), scientist, and inventor Franklin eventually became a highly popular public figure, this is why he was one of the most often portrayed persons of his time. Because of his aphorisms in the Poor Richard’s Almanach, of which he was author and publisher, (1732 to 1758) and his autobiography (the first American autobiography), Franklin embodied the stereotype of the self-made man. THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY The work was written and revised on four occasions over a period of 19 years (1771-1790) and it remained unfinished. Benjamin Franklin’s autobiography may mark the creation of the American Dream, understanding America as a place where any person could attain wealth and distinction simply by working hard enough. He creates the story of a young man without a penny who is able to become a distinguished statesman and wealthy inventor, this is why he can be seen as a self-made man. With his autobiography, Franklin wants to compare himself to the creation of America. This work presents the actual achievement of the American Dream as a revolution of independence over living a life of dependence. Franklin seems to value work above all else. He works as hard as he can to succeed, not letting any obstacles get in his way. After he achieves success and wealth he does not rest; rather, his work continues. He thinks that men are identified by their trades and they must be employed at some task (live usefully), no matter how mundane, to truly feel a sense of worth. He thinks that love, religion, and family bring this sort of peace; however it is assiduous work that gives a meaning to men’s life. It is also work that, of course, brings wealth and reputation (careful staging of a public persona). There is a clear connection between writing and living, and this is why life is treated like a book. Franklin begins his text by saying writing it out is like living his life again. Instead of God writing Franklin's life story, Franklin takes the reins himself. He is in control of what is said and how it is said. He also writes about his own errata (mistakes) so that people can take them as universal examples of what not to do and, if it is too late, how to fix them. Another key theme is his criticizing the adherence to Biblical guidelines. Franklin routinely criticizes the role of religion which may influence the ability of making decisions in life. By not considering religion morals, the decision- making process becomes easier, as one is able to consider the ethical value of the situation itself rather than focusing on the moral code. THOMAS PAINE  Nature teaches us lessons  Voice of a public preacher who interprets nature for us  Something sacred in all of Creation  Editor-in-chief of the New York newspaper Evening Post for half a century  Meditative, dignified, regular, didactic poetry TO COLE, THE PAINTER, DEPARTING FOR EUROPE William Cullen Bryant is the speaker in the poem. He is giving advice to his friend Cole who is departing for Europe. The sonnet is broadly about preferring the “wilder” American scenes to European ones for artistic inspiration. In fact, the poet wants to convince his friend who is leaving that: nature is better than civilization; that Europe is less open- minded in regards to America; Cole will be disappointed about the less open mind of Europe. Moreover, the poem is particularly Romantic. Bryant appeals to the senses by employing a lot of imagery. He makes descriptions of American landscapes using adjectives of beauty and exuberance, invoking nostalgia. THE PRAIRIES In “The Prairies" Bryant conveys a panoramic historical vision together with his recurrent Romantic themes of the brevity of human life and ancient ruins. Bryant’s idealization illustrates how powerful the myth of the Garden in the West was as Americans moved westward across the continent--the dream of a better future that has always been the meaning of America. It is also a poem against the colonial complex. EDGAR ALLAN POE Edgar Allan Poe showed an early interest in poetry and essay writing as he was fascinated with the power of language. His writing deals mainly with internal matters: he is concentrate on the psyche and emotions of an individual. In his works we can find the themes of loss, melancholy, escape into dream worlds, unhappy relationships, death and sadness. For the artist Alexander Pope Coleridge was a particularly influential role model. In fact, the poet shared his principles of poetic force:  Poetry can excite the reader’s sympathy if it adheres to the truth of nature;  Poetry creates a sense of novelty when its subject matter is affected by the poet’s imagination. His short stories can be categorized as  onabese stories, full of strange events, supernatural elements and symbolic fantasies (ex. The Fall of the House of Usher);  ratiocination stories, detective stories relying on reason, logic and intuition (ex. Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Purloined Letter). Poe considered important a set of principles for creative art:  unity / totality of effect / impression  precision / construction  appeal to emotions / ”elevation of soul”  rejection of didacticism & intellectuality  rejection of ecstatic intuition  brevity: “in one sitting” (PC / PP)  constructing beauty & melancholy  poetry is musical (rhythm)  most poetic subject: the death of a beautiful woman  intuitive inference as in “The Raven” EDGAR ALLAN POE – THE RAVEN The poem ‘The Raven’ can be described as a grotesque narrative poem or a darkly romantic classic. It has references to heaven, hell and the devil. The poem is divided into 18 stanzas with 6 lines in each stanza. It is about a man who is disturbed on one stormy night by a raven who comes to his room. The poem is written in the first person from the perspective of an unnamed man which could be referring to Edgar Allan Poe himself or a make believe character. The lonely man is mourning his dead lover, Lenore. Around the time the poem was written and published, Poe’s own wife Virginia was dying of tuberculosis, so it is easy to believe that the man in the poem is Poe himself. Maybe Poe’s purpose in writing this poem is to convey his own personal hell, a dark, imaginative story captured so well in the poem ‘The Raven’. The tone and subject of the poem also includes sadness and beauty. Poe believed that the saddest and most beautiful event was the death of a beautiful woman. Everyone understands the passion of beauty. ‘Beauty’ excites the ‘sensitive soul to tears’ thus melancholy and beauty are close allies. Poe considered sadness to be the highest manifestation of beauty. Alliteration, rhythm and rhyme are amongst the most prevalent techniques used throughout the poem. With this rhythm Poe uses assonance, words with similar syllables, for example remember, December, ember. These words build up the suspense a little like the music in a horror movie. Stanza by stanza the suspense becomes more intense. RALPH WALDO EMERSON  Most important thinker & writer of American transcendentalism  Unitarian minister in Concord, MA  Nature (1836): intuit the “Oversoul” behind the natural phenomena  Best-known as an essayist RALPH WALDO EMERSON – THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR The essay is a speech made at the university of Harvard. The lecture deals with the proclamation of America’s cultural independence. Emerson stresses the role of the American intellectual, as distinct from the European intellectual. Emerson calls for an intellectualism that is engaged, optimistic, and forward-thinking. He believes that American scholars have been overly dependent on their European forebears, and that they need to forge a role of their own. An American Scholar should be a practical “man thinking” rather than a bookish “thinker”. He urges them to be more self-reliable and develop individual creativity/genius. This idea is clearly against the colonial complex. HENRY DAVID THOREAU  Centrality of individualism  Walden; or Life in the Woods (1854): thoughts about civilization & the need to live deliberately  Refusal to pay taxes lands him in prison  Refusal to support a government that goes against his convictions  Needs of the individual should be the basis of a nation’s policies  Government must serve the individual, not vice versa  Individual is a higher power than the State: “Resistance to Civil Government” HENRY DAVID THOREAU – RESISTANCE TO CIVIL GOVERNMENT In this text Thoreau affirms the absolute right of individuals to not support a government whose policies are immoral or unjust. In few words, it is against the blind execution of rules and laws. The methods of resistance that Thoreau accepts in his essay are pacifist and rely principally on economic pressure; for example, not paying taxes in order to deprive the State of its resources and its ability to continue its unjust policies. The ultimate goal of civil disobedience is to reinforce its core values of liberty and respect for the individual. Only an individual can have and exercise a conscience. An individual has a right and an obligation to "do at any time" what he considers right, to exercise his own conscience by refusing involvement or complicity in a government that enforces unjust policies. Civil disobedience is a necessary expression of individual conscience and morality. Limited government: the most ideal form of government is one which exercises the least power and control over its citizens. Democracy is not the last stage in the evolution of the State, as there is still greater room to recognize the freedom and rights of the individual. Thoreau even imagines a society in which government is eliminated because men have the capacity to be self-regulating and independent. WALT WHITMAN  son of a Long Island farmer & carpenter  printer, schoolteacher, house builder, carpenter, reporter, opera critic  America’s first city poet  Leaves of Grass (1855)  considered by many the best American poet of all times.  The American poet of democracy  New, raw voice for a relatively new nation (“barbaric yawp”)  Focus on the American world of everyday observations (the “democratic en masse”)  Role of the poet: spiritual leader  Poetic celebration in a prophetic tone & a voice freed from the constraints of meter & rhyme WALT WHITMAN – LEAVES OF GRASS Leaves of Grass is a collection of poetry written over Walt Whitman's entire lifetime organized thematically into sections. Whitman revised and added to the book throughout his life, the final edition being published only months before his death in 1891. Whitman was intentional in not organizing the book in any chronological way. Instead, he was concerned with the journey of the poetry. He desired that the reader would see a self-formed through the words and themes of the book. American Romanticism Whitman built upon the Romantic and Transcendentalist traditions. Romantics used symbols of the external world ("nature") as representative of of an invisible inner reality. Whitman used natural imagery such as the sea, the road, or personified animals to signify spiritual dimensions of the self and of the world. American Democracy Whitman embodied the ideals of democracy, freedom, and revolution; the ideals on which the United States was founded and for which it fought during the Civil War. He recognized that America undertook a unique democratic experiment, one which was not at all certain to succeed. Whitman's poetry, like America's politics, broke the established form and structure. It relied not on tradition but on innovation. In fact the form of his work was not based on tradition rhyme scheme; he used long lines with irregular length and free verse; his aim was to recreate common language to express the voice of common people. Travel Whitman wanted to include the spirit of all the States and to find a collectivity between all Americans. This is why he emphasizes the importance of travel. For Whitman, traveling through the United States is not simply a physical act of movement but a spiritual act. Traveling helps him understand his own soul, always moving and striving for the beauty of a higher reality. Travel also helps him to discern the American spirit of democracy that lives within the common folk of his writing. It is a metaphor for the continual act of transformation that Whitman sees in the nation as a whole. The theme of travelling also mirrored the American landscape of the nineteenth century. America was a wilderness, and Whitman sought to celebrate what was wild and what was natural about the land and the people that inhabited it. As the country traveled West, so did Whitman's poetry. Collectivity/connection Whitman also upholds the collectivity of the nation. "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" is, perhaps, Whitman's best example of the way humanity is connected through a common spiritual unity. This is a unity that the self seeks but that correlates to a common humanity.  Enrolled at Yale University at age 13, expelled for childish pranks, no university degree  Life on sea, joins U.S. Navy at 18  Lives in Europe with his family from 1826-33  Prolific writer -Many stories and novels about life on sea & life in Europe -Political content (against oligarchy) -Political essays  The “American Sir Walter Scott”  Conflict between “civilization” & “wilderness”  “noble savage” figures like Chingachgook & Uncas  Notions of the Americans (1828): a concentration on distinctly American topics and characters: wilderness, settlement, Native Americans, cultural contact. PIOONERS The Pioneers is an American historical novel by James Fenimore Cooper. It was the first of five novels published which became known as the Leatherstocking Tales Landscape: In The Pioneers, Cooper explains the battle between nature and civilization as a constant and competing force within the minds of the characters and in the general surroundings. Cooper evaluates his landscape as one that will be established by a civilization unable to escape its own traits of wastefulness and arrogance. Characters: Cooper expands the conflict between nature and civilization in his characters. Specifically, Cooper writes much more detailed dialogue for “Natty Bumpo” than he does for any of the other characters. Natty stresses the importance of respecting the land and criticizes the greed and selfishness of mankind. The “civil societal” characters are background to Natty's heroic natural character. He emerges as the antithesis to wastefulness as demonstrated and embodied in the settlers. Cooper's main theme is wilderness versus established society. While the settlers see wilderness as being tamed by their presence, Natty has a vision of civilized life coexisting with nature. Ideally, he wants to sustain the unique role that this vast unexplored wilderness contributes to the complexity of America. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE (1804-1864)  Born in Salem, MA  Lifelong concern with ancestor’s role in the Salem Witch Trials  A “dark romantic” - Inherent evil & sin of humanity -Moral messages -Psychological complexity -Ambivalence of human existence a use of unreliable narrators & ambivalent symbols  Major theme: the Puritan past of New England  Major novels: The Scarlet Letter (1850), The House of the Seven Gables (1851), The Blithedale Romance (1852), The Marble Faun (1860) NATHANIEL HAWTRHORNE – YOUNG GOODMAN BROWN "Young Goodman Brown" is a short story published in 1835 by American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne. The story takes place in 17th century Puritan New England and addresses the Calvinist/Puritan belief that all of humanity exists in a state of depravity, but that God has destined some to unconditional election through unmerited grace. Hawthorne frequently focuses on the tensions within Puritan culture, yet steeps his stories in the Puritan sense of sin. In a symbolic fashion, the story follows Young Goodman Brown's journey into self-scrutiny, which results in his loss of virtue and belief. Puritanism Puritanism was a very important part of Hawthorne’s background, a part that he often questioned throughout his stories. In "Young Goodman Brown", Puritans are associated with the devil, demonstrating the hypocrisy Hawthorne may have seen in his religion. Related to the theme of Puritanism is the idea of man's good and evil nature. Though people may appear moral, they may be sinners. Likewise, those who appear sinful on the outside may be good. He sees the religious leaders and cannot look at them the same way, for he has seen their hypocrisy and hidden sin. By failing to recognize that humanity is not just black and white, he cannot take part in humanity. Dreams Another theme is that of the dream and the supernatural. It is unclear whether the witch gathering Goodman Brown witnesses in the forest is a dream or reality. The events in the story seem quite unimaginable, yet are recounted in great detail, and apparently change Goodman Brown in a very realistic way for the rest of his life. The quick shift from the gathering to Goodman Brown awakening in the forest, however, makes the event seem like a mere nightmare. Whether Goodman Brown imagines his experience or in fact lives it, he is forever changed by the experience. From community to loneliness Hawthorne focuses particularly on the minds of individual characters and the internal struggle within themselves. After what he had seen, whether it was real or not, he begins to believe that he lives in a distorted Christian community. He loses his faith in his wife, along with all of humanity. Allegory "Young Goodman Brown" is often characterized as an allegory about the recognition of evil and depravity as the nature of humanity. Hawthorne gives the characters specific names that depict abstract pure and wholesome beliefs, such as "Young Goodman Brown" and "Faith". The characters' names ultimately serve as a paradox in the conclusion of the story. The inclusion of this technique was to provide a definite contrast and irony. Hawthorne aims to critique the ideals of Puritan society and express his disdain for it, thus illustrating the difference between the appearance of those in society and their true identities. HAWTHORNE THEORY OF ‘ROMANCE’ Hawthorne considered particularly important making a clear distinction between the ‘novel’ and the ‘romance’. Through the romance he intended to portray the "truth of the human heart," and the best way to do this is using the strategy of indirection. It is a truth that can be expressed only in the images of the imagination, and as Hawthorne himself thought, this truth cannot be "grasped" except in such images. When, in the Preface to The House of the Seven Gables, Hawthorne made his now famous distinction between the novel and the romance, he was not at all intending to assign "truth" to the novel and mere "fantasy," or escapist dreaming, to the romance. He was distinguishing between "fact" (which the novel deals with) and "truth" (which is the traditional province of the romance), and at the same time he was suggesting an orientation in which "fact" is external and "truth" internal. In the ‘Custom House’, which is the preface to the ‘Scarlet Letter’ Hawthorne also shares his definition of the romance. The author makes the use of light and setting as a romance techniques to develop his themes. Hawthorne explains that, in a certain light and time and place, objects ". . . seem to lose their actual substance, and become things of intellect." He asserts that, at the right time with the right scene before him, the romance writer can "dream strange things and make them look like truth." HERMAN MELVILLE  Major novels: -Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846) -Mardi (1849) - Redburn (1849) -White Jackett (1850) - Moby-Dick (1851)  Concerned with epistemology  The universe is deeply ambivalent  Moby-Dick (1851): -Not only an adventure story about the hunt for a white whale -Melville’s philosophical treatise about the search for meaning -Multiple quests (Ishmael, Ahab, meaning) HERMAN MELVILLE – MOBY DICK The novel Moby Dick was the sixth novel published by Herman Melville, a landmark of American literature. It is a travelogue, a character study and an allegory which mixes a number of literary styles including a fictional adventure story, historical detail and even scientific discussion. The story of the voyage of the whaling ship Pequod , the novel draws at least partially from the experiences of its author while a sailor and a harpooner on whaling ships before settling in New England as a writer. CHAPTER 1 The first chapter establishes Ishmael as a prototype, a working man and observer who claims no defining characters; his simplicity is a key to the novel, for it places Ishmael as an everyman whose character is subordinate to the other characters and occurrences of the novel. The name Ishmael, however, imbues the novel with religious undertones that will prevail through the course of Moby Dick. CHAPTER 42 In this chapter, Herman Melville attempts to define Moby Dick through its whiteness, instead finding that the very nature of the colour white defies definition. While Melville does confront symbolic interpretation of the colour white as symbolic of purity or innocence, he instead finds whiteness to represent absence or opacity. This suggests that the white whale Moby Dick resists any definition or internal meaning. Whatever meaning or symbolism that the whale holds exists entirely in relation to others' perceptions of it. To be explicit, Moby Dick gains definition and symbolic value only in terms of its relation to Ahab and, to a much lesser extent, the other members of the Pequod crew. EPILOGUE The epilogue of the novel serves as a necessary explanatory note, showing how Ishmael could narrate the story even after the final chapter essentially states that none of the crew of the Pequod survived the attack by Moby Dick. Melville begins the epilogue with a scriptural quote from Job, "And I am escaped alone to tell thee," once again returning to a Biblical parallel. However, the journeys of Job and Ishmael in fact contain few essential similarities other than surface details. While Job grappled with the possibility of a vengeful God, Ishmael serves as a simple narrator for the novel. He is simply a witness to the tragedy that unfolded throughout Moby Dick, and in fact is Job's opposite. In the Biblical tale of Job, his suffering was random and unjustified, while in Moby Dick it is Ishmael's good fortune that is mere coincidence, allowing him, like Job, to tell his tale. THE SLAVE NARRATIVE In the 19th century slave narratives were the predominant literary genre of African Americans. Although North American slave narratives were published in the 18th century in Britain, with the growing abolitionist movement, these narratives became very popular in the North of America. Slave narrative books are special kind of autobiographies. They had an engraved portrait of and were signed by the author. The title page stated that the text was written by the author him- or herself and was followed by a poetic epigraph. Some of them instead were written as told to abolitionists. "to address race and gender issues." She explores the struggles and sexual abuse that female slaves faced on plantations as well as their efforts to practice motherhood and protect their children when their children might be sold away. In the book, Jacobs addresses white Northern women who fail to comprehend the evils of slavery. She makes direct appeals to their humanity to expand their knowledge and influence their thoughts about slavery as an institution. LINCOLN’S “A HOUSE DIVIDED” – SPEECH “A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure, permanently, half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction; or its advocates will push it forward, till it shall become lawful in all the States, old as well as new — North as well as South.” GETTYSBURY ADDRESS America was in the midst of a bloody civil war. Union troops had only four months earlier defeated Confederate troops at the Battle of Gettysburg, widely recognized as the turning point in the war. The stated purpose of Lincoln’s speech was to dedicate a plot of land that would become Soldier’s National Cemetery to honour the fallen. However, the Civil War still raged and Lincoln realized that he also had to inspire the people to continue the fight. REALISM (1865 – 1914) In 1865, the Civil War had finally ended and the country was exhausted. There was a massive devastation, especially in the South, which came to be very difficult to reconstruct again. However, there is a period of relative tranquillity to follow. There were great advances in technology and industry and such shifts had a drastic effect on population, society, and culture. Especially we have a rise of northern industrialism and big business. The moral impact of the Civil War cannot be underestimated. Especially in the decade immediately after the conflict, there was a great sense of despair. An example is that of the development of Southern antebellum nostalgia: people had the feeling that ‘good old times’ were gone. It is also important to note that this half-century saw an increase in the demand for rights by women, African Americans, workers, and other groups who were beginning to understand that they desired input about how their country should operate. For example, all-black towns and colleges were founded. Despite this, especially in the South, there was a continuation of segregation and racism. As for the historical and cultural developments, progress continued and the first transcontinental railroad was completed and in use by 1869. This is one of the most important developments of the post-Civil War period as it not allowed more efficient transport of goods across vast distances, but this fact in turn encouraged greater levels of production, industrialization and urbanization. Apart from a growing division between rich and poor, there was also a shift from the rural towns and agricultural settlements to an urban migration. Especially marked with a massive exodus of African-Americans from the South to the industrial centres of the mid-Atlantic & the North. Due to massive industrialization, faster and more affordable means of transport, immigration heavily increased. The 1890 census had shown that a frontier line, no longer existed. The announcement impressed Frederick Jackson Turner, a young historian at the University of Wisconsin. In 1893, he presented a paper to the American Historical Association entitled “The Significance of the Frontier in American History.” In it he argued that the experience of the frontier was what distinguished the United States from Europe; the frontier had shaped American history as well as produced the practicality, energy, and individualism of the American character. So, the closing of the Frontier in 1890, signalled the end of the era of government land giveaways.  American Continuing division & animosity between North & South  Spanish-American War (1898)  U.S. expansionism under the doctrine of “Manifest Destiny” LITERARY THEMES American history influenced the literature that came after it. In realism, novel and prose writings had been the dominant literary form. Often realist literature incorporated local color writing – the use of local accents, vernacular, slang, and setting. Because Realist writers attempt to explore and probe the human psyche and represent ordinary Americans truthfully, the movements is also sometimes referred to as “Psychological Realism.” Some of its most prominent writers, William Dean Howells, Henry James and Kate Chopin hoped to hold up a mirror to society in their writing. William Dean Howells (1837 – 1920)  Main theorist of American realism -Realist fiction has to treat commonplace Americans truthfully -Novels should be “documentary” -Moral mission of art (didactic) -Social/moral issues  Examples of his works: -A Modern Instance -The Rise of Silas Lapham -An Imperative Duty HENRY JAMES Henry James is mainly concerned with the psychological realism. It’s a highly character-driven genre of fiction writing, as it focuses on the motivations and internal thoughts of characters to explain their actions. A writer of psychological realism seeks to show not only what the characters do but also to explain why they take such actions. There's often a larger theme in psychological realism novels, with the author expressing an opinion on a societal or political issue through his or her characters. Among the innovations introduced by James we have:  Chronology: anticipation & retrospect replace strict chronology  Plot: little outward action (mind/ consciousness)  Characters: fairly small number of figures  Selfhood: characters more ambivalent than consistent, more contradictory than self-reliant  Center of Consciousness: all we are told is filtered through the consciousness of one character; limited third- person point of view  Unreliable Narrator: The narrator does not know everything; he/she keeps finding things out & keeps revising his/her assumptions as the narrative progresses  Values: Values are ambivalent; sometimes truth cannot be distinguished from falsehood. HENRY JAMES - THE PORTRAIT OF LADY The main subject of the novel is Isabel Archer; young woman who journeys to Europe, a moral heroine. The novel is about her quest to gain these life experiences. The writer gives us a limited point of view, as the protagonist is seen as the centre of consciousness, who filters all the events for us. To do this, James uses a free indirect style, employed to rend perfectly the psychological process inside the lady’s mind. A stylistic device employed suggestiveness, but also ambiguity and ellipsis. The novel faces the theme of selfhood: it is all about discovering what characters really want and need, deep down inside, and finding out what makes us who we really are. Even when characters think they know themselves, they’re always surprised by what they don’t know about other people. What girls – rather, women – just want in this novel is independence and the freedom to make their own choices. The many women that Henry James depicts in The Portrait of a Lady have hopes, dreams, and even schemes, but not all of them come true. The novel examines the various obstacles (men, social pressure) that stand between these characters and true, unrestricted independence. MARK TWAIN  His real name was Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835 – 1910) -Exceptional writer in American Realism -No literary education, self-educated -Journalism  literature -No specific school or historical period -Embodiment of the American Writer  Local Color Fiction: fiction and poetry that focuses on the characters, dialect, customs, topography, and other features particular to a specific region  Tall tale: narrative that depicts the wild adventures of extravagantly exaggerated folk heroes. -Clash of “cultures” -West as self-conscious, disrespectful world offering itself as source of democratic regeneration (egalitarian society of border crossers)  Criticism of illusion: excess & absurdity  end: effect: collapse  Against conventional religiosity & romances, common sense  Novels inspired by Twain’s youth in the frontier region of Mississippi: - Life on the Mississippi (1875/83) - The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) - Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884/85)  Travel writing, satirical work  Late work: disillusioned - A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur’s Court - “The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg” MARK TWAIM –THE ADVENTURES OF HUCKLEBERRY FINN The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is the sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), but not primarily a children’s book . It is often considered Twain's greatest masterpiece. Combining his raw humor and startlingly mature material, Twain developed a novel that directly attacked many of the traditions the South held dear at the time of its publication. Huckleberry Finn is the main character, and through his eyes, the reader sees and judges the South, its faults, and its redeeming qualities. He embodies the opposite to Victorian education: he is adventurous and he lives a free life away from educational authorities such as church and religion, state and school, family and parents. (?)His lack of education=no miseducation, instinct, common sense, humanity  irony: ignorant Huck = embodiment of core American (civilizing) values (?) Huck's companion Jim, a runaway slave, provides friendship and protection while the two journey along the Mississippi on their raft. later back to the stereotypical representation of him as one of the “niggers” on plantation. Twain wanted to criticized the hypocrisy of Southern conventions & slavery. Life on the river and in nature as a symbol of opposition to the regulations, limitations and hypocrisy of “sivilization”, an example is the raft, which is outside the laws of civilization. “The fact has not created in me A sense of obligation.”  Correspondent, novelist, short story writer, poet Main works:  Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893): -Depiction of life in tenement buildings in NYC’s Bowery -Degradation of slum life -Maggie is thrown out by her alcoholic mother, left by her vile seducer, condemned by her brother, shunned by neighbors & the minister -Presumably drowns herself in the end  The Red Badge of Courage (1895): -International fame at age 24 -Blind instinct decides on heroism or cowardice -Civil War compared to a blood-swollen god -Men in battle compared to frightened or maddened animals THE OPEN BOAT "The Open Boat" is a short story by American author Stephen Crane (1871–1900). First published in 1897, it was based on Crane's experience of surviving a shipwreck off the coast of Florida earlier that year while traveling to Cuba. Crane was stranded at sea for thirty hours when his ship, the SS Commodore, sank after hitting a sandbar. He and three other men were forced to navigate their way to shore in a small boat; one of the men, an oiler named Billie Higgins, drowned after the boat overturned. Crane subsequently adapted his report into narrative form. The story is told from the point of view of an anonymous correspondent, with Crane as the implied author. The story is considered an exemplary work of literary Naturalism, and is one of the most frequently discussed works in Crane's canon. It is notable for its use of imagery, irony, symbolism, and the exploration of such themes as survival, solidarity, and the conflict between man and nature . Life is seen as a struggle and the universe does not care. Whether you live or die, it does not depend on your merits or good deeds, the fate is considered as unjust. FRANK NORRIS – MC TEAGUE  Chronicle of the gradual degradation of a big man -Initially harmless -Brutish instincts  McTeague practices dentistry without a license in San Francisco  Marries Trina, who has just won $ 5,000 in a lottery  Loses his job & starts to drink  Murders Trina when she would not give him any more money  Tracked down & killed by her cousin  Man as animalistic & brutal, competing for resources THEODORE DREISER – SISTER CARRIE  First novel, called “a picture of conditions”  Contrasting fates of the two central characters: -Poor country girl Carrie Meeber seeks fortune in Chicago & New York, becomes a Broadway star -Well-to-do bar manager George Hurstwood falls in love with  Carrie, which ruins his marriage & his career & leads to his decline & death  Hurstwood steals money for Carrie & takes her to NYC  After she has left him he becomes apathetic & kills himself  Documentation of factory work, bar life, work in hotels & theaters, the impact of the city on the psyche of people  Rejection of genteel conventions & didacticism UPTON SINCLAIR  Born in Baltimore  Started writing at age 15  Best-known work: The Jungle (1906), an exposé of the meat-packing houses which forced the federal government to tighten food adulteration laws  Invested the proceeds from the book in a socialist colony  Moved to CA in 1915, founded an alliance of the unemployed & progressives (EPIC: End Poverty in California)  Ran for governor for the Democratic Party, nearly won; several more unsuccessful attempts at public office  Published more than 100 works: primarily novels & plays; all political UPTON SINCLAIR – THE JUNGLE The Jungle was published in 1906, three years after Upton Sinclair’s failed first novel, and it became an immediate success. Sinclair based the novel on the American meatpacking industry, an industry that had received scrutiny in the decade before the novel’s publication by journalists and social critics. For years before Sinclair began his work, these groups of writers and journalists had documented the abuses of the industry and the plight of immigrant workers who suffered under terrible working conditions. Though the novel was a detailed exposé of the food industry in the early twentieth century, the meatpacking industry was arguably just a setting that Sinclair used to promote his own vision of socialist politics. Sinclair used the food industry because he believed it was an industry that touched the lives of all Americans and he saw the enterprise as an example of capitalism’s worst abuses.  2 claims:  The Beef Trust is knowingly selling diseased meat  The Beef Trust pays its employees a bare subsistence wage President Theodore Roosevelt read the book, was shocked, called Sinclair to see him; Sinclair was able to prove his charges based on the research he had done. To this event followed the Pure Food & Drug Act & significant improvement of labour conditions in the stockyards. The novel follows the story, with a very realistic description, of Jurgis and Ona Rudkus, Lithuanian immigrants, and the family and friends bound together with them. Jurgis and Ona undergo incredible hardships. Jurgis turns to drinking and is thrown in jail after beating a factory foreman who rapes his wife. Ona dies in childbirth and Jurgis retreats to the countryside. When he returns to the city, he finds salvation in the Socialist Party, which advocates for all workers of the world to unite for the common good. The novel ends with a call for revolution and with Jurgis finding new power for his continued journey. Throughout the novel, gory descriptions of the food making process intertwine with the horrors and hardships of immigrant life in the slums of Chicago.  Tough working & living conditions, in which only the strong can survive  Social Darwinism: competition for resources  solidarity & brotherly love  Uncaring nature, uncaring city, uncaring people; the individual has to make it on his/her own  Image of a hostile world: from Sinclair’s socialist viewpoint, the world is hostile because of capitalism & profiteers who care only about their material gains & not about the damage they might do to others  Reflection of historical developments in America: -Increasing gap between rich & poor -Industrialization -The power of big business (& abuses of that power) -Exploitation of immigrants because there are too many of them  Similarity of the novel to muckraking journalism -Journalists exposing corruption in business & politics in McClure’s Magazine & other militant periodicals HARLEM RENAISSANCE The Harlem Renaissance was an intellectual, social, and artistic explosion centered in Harlem, New York, spanning the 1920s. At the time, it was known as the "New Negro Movement", named after The New Negro, a 1925 anthology edited by Alain Locke. The movement also included the new African-American cultural expressions ( music, art, dance, writing) across the urban areas in the Northeast and Midwest United States affected by the Great Migration from the South, of which Harlem was the largest. COMMON THEMES IN LITERATURE  Alienation  Outsider status of blacks  Suffering  Racism  Memories of life in the South  Alain Locke, The New Negro (1925; anthology of black writing) W. E. B. DUBOIS – THE SOULS OF BLACK FOLK  Pride in African-American culture  Founded the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909  Speaks of the “two-ness” or “double consciousness” of African Americans In The Souls of Black Folk, W.E.B Du Bois uses dualities to draw attention to the religious hypocrisy of white people, to convey what it is like to be black in a racially hostile environment, and to express a desire to see black and white cohabitating peacefully. He employs these “twoness”: black people are divided internally between “unreconciled ideals”—what is expected of them by whites, and what they in turn want for themselves. The black man is divided in his quest for personal identity, and how broken the nation is when so many Americans are experiencing this plight. LANGSTON HUGHES  Moved from Missouri & Kansas to Harlem  Became (one of) the most prominent Harlem Renaissance writers  Poet, dramatist, short story writer, essayist  Best-known poetry collection: The Weary Blues (1926)  Condemned American imperialism in Cuba & Haiti; spent a year in Russia  socialist outlook  Founded the leftist Suitcase Theatre  Plot structure: the structure of the plots is mainly nonlinear, not following a chronological order, moving forward and backward in time and characterized also by elements such as multiple and often unreliable narrators. ROBERT FROST  Farmer in New Hampshire until age 38  Sold his farm to become a poet  First published in England  Focus on realistic, nostalgic depictions of rural life in New England to explore social +philosophical issues (pastoral)  4 Pulitzer Prizes for Poetry  Most widely read American poet of his time  Poet laureate 1958-59  Simple truths about life + simple pleasures: “Birches” (1916)  Skepticism about the alienation of modernist poetry  Modernism  Local (New England) very important (≠ e.g. Eliot’s/ Pound’s cosmopolitanism)  Never identified with Modernism  Modernists: “relic of 19th century” Poetry:  Basis: metaphor  Mix: strict meter + common rhythms of speech (colloquial, vernacular)  Classical conventions  Integration of colloquial language, vernacular  Skeptic-abysmal irony  Traditional dramatic-meditative poetry, directly linked with “event” & “plot”  other way of expressing contemporary poetry T.S. ELIOT  Born in American Midwest  Studied in Oxford, England + remained in London after his doctorate British citizen  Friendship with American poet Erza Pound (mentor & fellow-poet) Eliot first published ‘The Love song of J. Alfred Pufrock’ at the instigation of Ezra Pound  Modernist poetry relies on “depersonalization”  Use of “objective correlatives” THE LOVE SONG OF J. ALFRED PUFROCK The poem is a dramatic interior monologue of an urban man, stricken with feelings of isolation and an incapability for decisive action, found in the hostile world of a modern industrial city. Prufrock laments his physical and intellectual inertia, the lost opportunities in his life and lack of spiritual progress, and he is haunted by reminders of unattained carnal love. With visceral feelings of weariness, regret, embarrassment, longing, emasculation, sexual frustration, a sense of decay, and a fear for death, "Prufrock" has become one of the most recognised voices in modern literature. The speaker is self-conscious like Hamlet feels paralyzed, unable to act. THE WASTE LAND The Waste Land is a poem by T. S. Eliot, widely regarded as one of the most important poems of the 20th century and a central work of modernist poetry. It is a long, complex poem about the psychological and cultural crisis that came with the loss of moral and cultural identity after World War I. When it was first published, the poem was considered radically experimental. Eliot dispenses with traditional verse forms and instead juxtaposes sordid images of popular culture with erudite allusions to classical and ancient literature and myths. The title is indicative of Eliot’s attitude toward his contemporary society, as he uses the idea of a dry and sterile wasteland as a metaphor for a Europe devastated by war and desperate for spiritual replenishment but depleted of the cultural tools necessary for renewal. The poem is deliberately obscure and fragmentary, incorporating variant voices, multiple points of view, and abrupt shifts in dramatic context. The motif of moral degeneration, however, is prevalent throughout the poem, the premise being that contemporary Europe, obsessed with novelty, trends, materialism, and instant gratification, lacks the faith and substance to reaffirm its cultural heritage, to reestablish the sense of order and stability that historical continuity once provided. “Tradition and the Individual Talent” (1921)  Novelty in poetry: To create something new, the poet must dip into tradition. Keep the literary tradition in mind without being stifled by it. Find an expression that is fitting for the poet’s own age. -Similar to Ezra Pound’s dictum “Make it new!”  Eliot’s “impersonal theory” of poetry “The business of the poet is not to find new emotions, but to use the ordinary ones and, in working them up into poetry, to express feelings which are not in actual emotions at all. And emotions which he has never experienced will serve his turn as well as those familiar to him.”  Against autobiographical constraints & confessional modes The ad-dressing of cats The poem creates the idea that cats are much like humans; especially in their need to be named. There are also many clever references as to why cats are better than dogs. EZRA (1) POUND (FISH)  Expatriate poet preferring London & Paris to the more restricted life/art scene of the U.S.  Promoted the careers of fellow poets like Eliot  Central figure in Imagism: -Importance of the fitting image -Importance of an economy of language  Critical of capitalism  Radio broadcasts for Benito Mussolini in the 30s&40s  Arrested by American forces for treason in 1945  “Hugh Selwyn Mauberley” (1920): -Alienation -A new age demands a new literature IMAGISM Imagism is an early 20th Century poetry movement started by Ezra Pound and a few other contemporaries in Europe. The poets involved actually met and wrote papers about this movement and came up with three primary characteristics:  The poet must "simply present" an image, so the fitting image is important  The poet "does not comment"  The poet should use the words necessary to paint the image, not to fit some type of rhythmic pattern ( free verse), relies on the economy of language. IN A STATION ON THE METRO The best way to discuss these characteristics is to look at Pound's quintessential imagist poem "In a Station on the Metro": The apparition of the wet faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough This poem does not instruct. It does not force the reader to conjure up some moral lesson. It sounds just like ordinary language. This is Imagism. This represents the experience of a scene through a “center of consciousness” ( Henry James) and the image characterizes the experiencing mind. Even if this may seem simple, the poem has obviously a deeper meaning. The poem creates a perfect snapshot of this moment while calling to mind certain themes, including, possibly, the temporariness of human life. The word "apparition" conjures up many ideas about ghosts and temporariness. Then he compares the "faces in the crowd" to "Petals on a wet, black bough," again suggesting death at its most dramatic and temporariness at the minimum. Where do petals from a tree usual end up after a rain storm? On the ground. EZRA POUND - HUGH SELWYN MAUBERLEY This poem is actually made up of eighteen short poems and grouped into two sections. The first is, in essence, Pound's autobiography from the perspective of his third-person alter ego. It details his struggles to re-emphasize the importance of aesthetics and poetry in society. He pays particular attention to the classical Greek myths to illustrate his point, celebrating their classic beauty and intense passion. He describes America as a "half-savage land" where his art could not flourish. However, when he first arrived in London, he found that Britain was absorbed in commodities . Pound goes on to criticize artists and publishers for caring only about sales instead of the craft. He does this by creating a fictional conversation between his alter ego and a bestselling novelist who cares only about the reviews of his work. He criticizes mass culture, saying it will never again be able to produce great art because writers, painters, and other artists in modern day are concerned only with sales and profits. He believes that they are creating work for the wrong reasons. It is based on the idea that a new age demands a new type of literature. DOROTHY PARKER (linked to feminism)  3 marriages (2 to the same man)  Several suicide attempts  Writer in New York City  influential in the magazine -The New Yorker  Screenwriter in Hollywood - 2 Academy Award nominations  Blacklisted for her political views General Review of the Sex Situation Woman wants monogamy; Man delights in novelty. Love is a woman's moon and sun; Man has other forms of fun. Woman lives but in her lord; Count to ten, and a man is bored. With this the gist and sum of it, What earthly good can come of it? themes of decadence, idealism, resistance to change, social upheaval, and excess, creating a portrait of the Roaring Twenties (zeitgeist) that has been described as a cautionary[a] tale regarding the American Dream. Class is an unusual theme for an American novel. It is more common to find references to it in European, especially British novels. However, the societies of East and West Egg are deeply divided by the difference between the noveau riche and the older moneyed families. Gatsby is aware of the existence of a class structure in America, because a true meritocracy would put him in touch with some of the finest people, but, as things stand, he is held at arm's length. Gatsby tries desperately to fake status, even buying British shirts and claiming to have attended Oxford in an attempt to justify his position in society. Ultimately, however, it is a class gulf that seperates Gatsby and Daisy, and cements the latter in her relationship to her husband, who is from the same class as she is.  Immigrants  Big business  Industrialization  Gap between rich & poor (the Wilsons vs. the Buchanans)  New Woman: Jordan Baker  Question of values  Symbolism -Colors (green light, Daisy in white, “blue cocktail music”) “her voice was full of money” -Eyes of Dr. T.J. Eckleburg -“Valley of Ashes” American dream The Great Gatsby is related with the disillusionment with the American Dream—life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Gatsby's failure to realize the American dream demonstrates that it no longer exists except in the minds of those as materialistic as Gatsby. He concludes that the American dream pursued by Gatsby "is, in reality, a nightmare," bringing nothing but discontent and disillusionment to those who chase it as they realize that it is unsustainable and ultimately unattainable. The story deals with the limits and realities of America's ideals of social and class mobility, and the inevitably hopeless lower class aspirations to rise above the station(s) of their birth. Using elements of irony and tragic ending, it also delves into themes of excesses of the rich and recklessness of youth.  Gatsby as a self-made man  But wealth not through hard work but probably crime  Reference to Benjamin Franklin’s autobiography after Gatsby’s death  Mentor figures: Dan Cody, Meyer Wolfsheim  All major characters from the Midwest to the East  Daisy: all that women can hope to be is “pretty little fools” (contrast to  Jordan Baker, the “new woman”)  Social gap (the Wilsons vs. the rich characters)  Failure of Wilson’s dream (going West, home ownership)  Failure of Gatsby’s dream to “repeat the past” + overcome class barriers  Loss of values JOHN DOS PASSOS  Born in Chicago, named John Roderigo Madison  Studied at Harvard  Ambulance service during WW I  Abandoned socialist political leanings after a visit to the SU  Critical of American capitalism (alternative: humane + cooperative economy)  Manhattan Transfer (1925): city novel  U.S.A.: a trilogy published between 1930 and 1936 (synoptic), consisting of The 42nd Parallel, 1919 + The Big Money  Modernist narrative form influenced by the fragmentation of painting + the shifts in perspective + the montage technique of cinema (literary collage)  Narrative techniques: neutral camera eye, epitaph, montage, collage, leitmotifs  synoptic (panoramic) effect. ERNEST HEMINGWAY  After a career as a journalist: World War I ambulance driver  Aficionado of the bull ring, expert boxer, fervent fisher, impassioned hunter  Emphasis of manliness & male bravado in his life & work  The Sun Also Rises (1926): disillusioned account of the aimless wanderings of a group of 3 Americans after WWI  Depiction of a “lost generation”  Symbolic realism  Language of understatement  “iceberg technique”: only 1/8 of the action visible, 7/8 have to be inferred  Plot: -Liminal situations (of life & death) -Thrills to escape monotony -Disillusionment WILLIAM FAULKNER  Much use of symbolism and stream of consciousness  Writer of the American South: southern fiction is set in Southern states or written by authors from the South. In the aftermath of the Civil War (1861-1865), many (white) Southerners glorified the antebellum period and supported the “Lost Cause” – an intellectual and literary movement which attempted to reconcile pre-War ideals with the military defeat. Main themes in these writings are the significance of family, a sense of community and role of the individual in it, questions of social class, and issues of racial tension. The term Southern Renaissance describes the reinvigoration of Southern literature in 1920s and ‘30s. The literature often possesses a critical tone as the texts engage with the burden of history (slavery, military defeat, Reconstruction), the conservative culture, or racial issues. One of its most prominent authors is William Faulkner (Mississipi).  Literary subject: the decline of the South  1949/50: Nobel Prize in Literature  “Southern Gothic”  Fictional microcosm: Yoknapatawpha County: "I discovered that my little postage stamp of native soil was worth writing about. . . . It opened up a gold mine of people as I created a cosmos of my own” Main works:  Sartoris (1929)  The Sound and the Fury (1929): -Multiple point-of-view technique -Shifts in time reflect characters’ confusion -Cut-up technique blurs past & present -4 chapters all tell the same story of a family’s decline  As I Lay Dying (1930)  Absalom, Absalom! (1936): -Symbolism (e.g. “dead September afternoon,” “dust”) -Stream-of-consciousness, there is no objective point of view ABSALOM, ABSALOM! Absalom, Absalom! is the story of a legend and the people who tell it over and over again. In September 1909, 20- year-old Quentin Compson goes to visit Rosa Coldfield, an older woman in his hometown of Jefferson, Mississippi. Miss Rosa has summoned him to listen to her version of the legend of Thomas Sutpen. That same night, Quentin goes over the story again with his father, Mr. Compson, who tells the story from a different perspective. Five months later, when he goes to Harvard, he reinvents the story with his roommate, Shreve. Narration The writer employs the stream of consciousness technique. The structure of this book is a series of different, intertwining narratives. Each narrator brings his or her own set of preoccupations, misinformed knowledge, and interests to the narrative. As a result, there are three different stories to piece together. Crucial to this theme is the role of the reader him or herself--Faulkner expects you to participate in restructuring the Sutpen legend and, through this action, understand how biased each narrative, each memory, each history, is to each individual. JOHN STEINBECK  Fate of the rural proletariat in the 1920s & 1930s (‘Depression epics’)  Short stories: concern for the simple needs of common people  Life as a struggle for survival  1962: Nobel Prize in Literature  Tortilla Flat (1935): Mexican-American life in Monterrey, CA after WWI  In Dubious Battle (1936): fruit picker strike in California  Of Mice and Men (1937): 2 unequal migrant ranch workers during the Great Depression THE GRAPES OF WRATH  A social novel (advocating change in labor conditions)  In the eyes of the hungry, there is growing wrath. In the souls of the people the grapes of wrath are filling and growing heavy for the vintage An American realist novel set during the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, Steinbeck's work documents hard times in general, and also explores its era through the experiences of one particular family, the Joads. Steinbeck focuses throughout on the oppression of poor tenant farmers by industrialized agriculture: he depicts the hardships that such farmers experience at the hands of callous, wealthy, and greedy landowners. Yet The Grapes of Wrath is also a story of man versus the environment, since the families depicted in its narrative have been forced to flee the poor agricultural conditions afflicting the Great Plains. Seeking better farming conditions and new land after being forced out by corporate agriculture, the former farmers have gathered their families and belongings in barely functional cars and have set out for California. Unfortunately, a better life does not await them, and they merely continue to struggle against corporate interests Moral concern – stick together as a community As the farmers become aware of the injustices that they continue to endure at the hands of the corporate powers, they also realize the futility of the actions of lone individuals. If the workers can come together and communicate with one another, there is a possibility that they can stand up to the forces of corporate greed. If they do not stand together, they will continue to undercut one another and their wages will continue to fall. By organizing formally and by refusing to accept unfairly low wages, the laborers are able to exhibit their own form of power. Admiration for endurance in the face of adversity The Joads maintain this sense of hope despite the fact that they inhabit a world that offers few reasons for optimism. Even as they face immense difficulties in their everyday lives -- work is not easy to find, food is expensive, as it ought to be. Fantasy has a liberating magic that protects her from the tragedies she has had to endure. Throughout the play, Blanche's dependence on illusion is contrasted with Stanley's steadfast realism, and in the end it is Stanley and his worldview that win.  Dramatic exploration of loneliness + of the need for each other = Blanche is lost. She desperately seeks companionship and protection in the arms of strangers. And she has never recovered from her tragic and consuming love for her first husband. Blanche is in need of a defender. But in New Orleans, she will find instead the predatory and merciless Stanley. ARTHUR MILLER  Interest in the larger social framework/context of the individual life story  Focus on moral dilemmas (acting according to principles vs. acting according to one’s own wishes or for one’s own advantage) MAIN FEATURES OF HIS DRAMA  Highlighting of moral issues & of the social function of drama  Central role of guilt  Analytical drama (explores how present situation came about)  Avoids ambiguity  strengthen social & moral message  Central Beliefs: -Art can give form to the chaos of inner experience -Theatre helps people understand each other & discover a shared moral foundation as well as communal responsibility DEATH OF SALESMAN  Erosion of values  Impossibility of attaining the American Dream: economic & social conditions prevent the average family from achieving prosperity  Aspirations for egotistic success lead to a disregard for social equality  All characters feel a sense of insufficiency  Life becomes role-playing  Focus on (problematic) father-son relationships  Original title: The Inside of His Head  Blend of realism & expressionism, reality & illusion THE CRUCIBLE The Crucible takes place in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1692 during the Salem witch trials. The play is a fictionalized version of the trials and tells the story of a group of young Salem women who falsely accuse other villagers of witchcraft. The accusations and ensuing trials push the village into a hysteria which results in the arrest of 200 villagers and the deaths of 19. The play was written by American playwright Arthur Miller, who was wrongly accused of communism and un-American activities during McCarthyism in the 1950s. Miller wrote the play as an allegory, revealing the political and moral parallels between the Salem witch trials and the McCarthy trials of his own time. Plot  Black servant Tituba plays with some girls at summoning up spirits  Reverend’s daughter: nervous breakdown  Minister to examine whether witchcraft at work  Tituba confesses & implicates others in order to save herself  Hysteria a girls discover that best defense is to accuse others  Abigail Williams (fired servant of Proctors) accuses Elizabeth Proctor of witchcraft ( jealous of her & wants Proctor for herself)  One accusation leads to another; false evidence  Prosecutors present themselves as only doing jobs to uphold public order Miller wrote the play as an allegory for McCarthyism, when the United States government persecuted people accused of being communists. Miller was questioned by the House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities in 1956 and convicted of contempt of Congress for refusing to identify others present at meetings he had attended. McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of subversion or treason without proper regard for evidence. The term refers to U.S. senator Joseph McCarthy (R-Wisconsin) and has its origins in the period in the United States known as the Second Red Scare, lasting from the late 1940s through the 1950s. It was characterized by heightened political repression and a campaign spreading fear of communist influence on American institutions and of espionage by Soviet agents. Hysteria In The Crucible, neighbours suddenly turn on each other and accuse people they've known for years of practicing witchcraft and devil-worship. The town of Salem falls into mass hysteria, a condition in which community-wide fear overwhelms logic and individual thought and ends up justifying its own existence. Fear feeds fear: in order to explain to itself why so many people are afraid, the community begins to believe that the fear must have legitimate origins.In The Crucible, hysterical fear becomes an unconscious means of expressing the resentment and anger suppressed by strict Puritan society. Some citizens of Salem use the charge of witchcraft willfully and for personal gain, but most are genuinely overcome by the town's collective hysteria: they believe the devil is attacking Salem. CONFESSIONAL POETRY Confessional poetry or "Confessionalism" is a style of poetry that emerged in the United States during the 1950s. It has been described as poetry of the personal or "I", focusing on extreme moments of individual experience, the psyche, and personal trauma, including previously and occasionally still taboo matters such as mental illness, sexuality, and suicide, often set in relation to broader social themes. This is why it is obviously a highly autobiographical, openly displaying what the poet finds shameful about him-herself. It is sometimes also classified as Postmodernism. The school of "Confessional poetry" was associated with several poets who redefined American poetry in the 1950s and 1980s (heyday = apice), including Robert Lowell (main work = Life Studies), Sylvia Plath, John Berryman, Anne Sexton, Allen Ginsberg, and W. D. Snodgrass. ELIZABETH BISHOP  Childhood in Canada & Massachusetts  Studied at Vassar College  U.S. Poet Laureate 1949–50  Close friendship with Robert Lowell  1951: moves to Brazil for over 15 years  Teaching position at Harvard  “One Art” -Villanelle (complex structure) A villanelle, also known as villanesque[1], is a nineteen-line poetic form consisting of five tercets followed by a quatrain. There are two refrains and two repeating rhymes, with the first and third line of the first tercet repeated alternately until the last stanza, which includes both repeated lines. The villanelle is an example of a fixed verse form. The word derives from Latin, then Italian, and is related to the initial subject of the form being the pastoral. -Taking stock of the losses in the poet’s/speaker’s life -Sense of writing as a means of coming to terms with loss J.D. SALINGER  Protagonist’s alienation from 1950s conservative America  Colloquial style  Rejection of conventionalism  Rejection of the educational, commercial & sexual customs of the 1950s  Protagonist/narrator attempts to cover up his insecurity & fears by looking down on almost everybody else THE CATCHER IN THE RYE The Catcher in the Rye, novel by J.D. Salinger published in 1951. The novel details two days in the life of 16-year-old Holden Caulfield after he has been expelled from prep school. Confused and disillusioned, Holden searches for truth and rails against the “phoniness” of the adult world. He ends up exhausted and emotionally unstable. The events are related after the fact. It was originally intended for adults but is read by adolescents for its themes of angst and alienation, and as a critique on superficiality in society. The novel's protagonist Holden Caulfield has become an icon for teenage rebellion. The novel also deals with complex issues of innocence, identity, belonging, loss, and connection. JOHN UPDIKE  Author of over 20 novels & over a dozen short story collections  Concern with “middle America” (mostly suburban) -Self-description of his subject as “the American small town”  “Rabbit” series: -4 novels & 1 novella -Chronicle of the life of the protagonist & the development of America over several decades -Atmosphere of unease & alienation; the individual struggling with expectations  Terrorist (2006): -American-born, fundamentalist Islamist youth in New Jersey -In the wake of 9/11 RABBIT, RUN Rabbit, Run is a 1960 novel by John Updike. The novel depicts three months in the life of a 26-year-old former high school basketball player named Harry "Rabbit" Angstrom who is trapped in a loveless marriage and a boring sales job, and his attempts to escape the constraints of his life. It spawned several sequels, including Rabbit Redux, Rabbit is Rich and Rabbit at Rest, as well as a related 2001 novella, Rabbit Remembered. In these novels Updike takes a comical and retrospective look at the relentless questing life of Rabbit against the background of the major events of the latter half of the 20th century. THE BEAT GENERATION The Beat Generation was a literary and cultural movement of resistance to the mainstream from the 1950s to the 1970s, started by a group of authors whose work explored and influenced American culture and politics in the post- war era. The central elements of Beat culture are the rejection of standard narrative values as a counter-reaction to 1950s conservatism, making a spiritual quest, the exploration of American and Eastern religions, the rejection of materialism, explicit portrayals of the human condition, experimentation with psychedelic drugs, and sexual liberation and exploration. The name arose in a conversation with writer John Clellon Holmes. Kerouac allows that it was Huncke, a street hustler, who originally used the phrase "beat", in an earlier discussion with him. The adjective "beat" could colloquially mean "tired" or "beaten down" within the African-American community of the period and had developed out of the image "beat to his socks”, but Kerouac appropriated the image and altered the meaning to GREEN EGGS AND HAM Plot The story follows an unnamed character who does not like green eggs and ham and his adversary Sam-I-Am who wants him to eat it. The story becomes a refrain as Sam persistently follows his rival through an assortment of locations (in a house, in a box, in a car, in a tree, on a train, in the dark, in the rain, on a boat) and dining partners (a mouse, a fox, and a goat). The character finally gives in and tries the dish, just to make Sam “let him be”, and finds it quite tasty, happily responding, "I do so like green eggs and ham. Thank you. Thank you, Sam-I-am."  Simple words, rhymes, rhythmic; visual fantasy and exuberance. The rhymes stick to your mind, so that it is easier to memorize and it is possible to play with the sounds  About the persistence of Sam + the cat’s rejection of what it does not know  Repetitive action + dialogue with variation, mnemonic series  Moral of the story: Do not blindly reject what you do not know. E.B. WHITE  Frequent contributor to The New Yorker magazine for over 50 years: essays, witty short pieces in “Notes and Comment” + “Newsbreak” Co-author of The Elements of Style (1959)  Author of Stuart Little (1945), the story of a rat/mouse born to human parents in NewYork City. CHARLOTTE’S WEB Charlotte's Web is a children's novel by American author E. B. White and illustrated by Garth Williams. The novel tells the story of a livestock pig named Wilbur and his friendship with a barn spider named Charlotte. When Wilbur is in danger of being slaughtered by the farmer, Charlotte writes messages praising Wilbur (such as "Some Pig") in her web in order to persuade the farmer to let him live.  Genre of the animal story, in which animals are humanized and can talk  Animals presented as smarter than people  Voted top children’s novel in a 2012 survey of School Library Journal readers  Farm animals: solidarity to save Wilbur, the pig, from slaughter  Convincing description of the miraculous in much detail; the secret spreads because of the way people are 1950s idealization of simple country life, respect for animals L. FRANK BAUM  Author of 14 novels in the Oz series, plus 41 other novels, 83 short stories, over 200 poems, at least 42 scripts for theater + film  Attempt to create distinctly American tales in the tradition of the Brothers Grimm or Hans Christian Andersen  Use of feminist politics in the Oz books THE WIZARD OF OZ The story chronicles the adventures of a young farm girl named Dorothy in the magical Land of Oz, after she and her pet dog Toto are swept away from their Kansas home by a cyclone.  Fantasy: adventure of an adolescent in an imaginary world  Use of talking animals + fairy creatures, good witch + bad witch  Celebration of curiosity, courage + persistence  Formulaic dialogue, uncovering of pretense  Lesson learnt: the travelers already have what they are seeking  Moral: Be courageous, stick together, don’t believe everything and everyone, be critical. Then you can overcome any obstacles LAURA INGALLS WILDER  Born in Wisconsin; early moves to Missouri, Kansas, back to Wisconsin, on to Minnesota, Iowa, back to Minnesota, and on to the Dakota Territory. After being married she moved to Missouri.  Started teaching school 2 months before her 16th birthday  Regular newspaper column in the Missouri Ruralist starting in 1911  Started publishing the Little House series in 1932 THE HOUSE ON THE PRAIRIE Little House on the Prairie is an autobiographical children's novel by Laura Ingalls Wilder. The novel is about the months the Ingalls spent on the Kansas prairie around the town of Independence. Laura describes how her father built their one-room log house in Indian Territory, having heard that the government planned to open the territory to white settlers soon. In contrast to Little House in the Big Woods, the Ingalls face difficulty and danger in this book. They all fall ill from malaria, which was ascribed to breathing the night air or eating watermelon. American Indians are a common sight for them, as their house was built in Osage territory, and Ma's open prejudice about Indians contrasts with Laura's more childlike observations about those who live and ride nearby. They begin to congregate at the nearby river bottoms and their war cries unnerve the settlers, who worry they may be attacked, but an Osage chief who was friendly with Pa is able to avert the hostilities. By the end of the novel, all the Ingalls' work is undone when word comes that U.S. soldiers are being sent to remove white settlers from Indian Territory. Pa decides to move his family away before they can be forced to leave.  Adventures from a girl’s perspective while settling the wilderness  Nostalgia for a mythical American past; very obedient children  The wilderness is full of dangers; Native Americans are savages  Othering of the Native Americans; feeling of “terror”  Celebration of the settling of the West, myth of the Frontier, frontier practicality, family JUDY BLUME  Born Judith Sussman in New Jersey  Concentration of her children’s fiction on girls moving from childhood to adolescence  Criticized for addressing topics like menstruation, masturbation, teen sex, birth control, racism, divorce, bullying + death  Public stance against censorship + for the freedom to read what one wants to FUDGE-A-MANIA  Comic adventures in early teenage years  Peter hates Sheila, but their parents selected vacation homes next to each other. Peter’s five year-old brother Fudge wants to marry Sheila so she can protect him from monsters under his bed. Peter’s friend Jimmy spends more time with Sheila than Peter wants him to.  Child’s play vs. “think[ing] ahead” about getting into trouble SANDRA CISNEROS  Second-generation Mexican American, only daughter in a family of 6 brothers  Not primarily a writer of children’s books  Her only actual children’s book: Hairs = Pelitos (1994)  Narratives of emancipation centering on women + girls suffering from patriarchy THE HOUSE ON MANGO STREET The House on Mango Street is a 1984 coming-of-age/bildungsroman novel by Mexican-American author Sandra Cisneros. It is written from the perspective of teenage Latina, Esperanza Cordero, who struggles with her life in a Chicano and Puerto Rican neighbourhood of Chicago. Esperanza wishes to escape her impoverished life in her small red house on Mango Street to then return one day to rescue her loved ones as well. The novel combines old Mexican traditions with modern American customs and explores the plight of marginalized Latinos struggling to survive in a dominantly white country. It is presented in a series of vignettes and is Sandra Cisneros’ first published novel.  Coming-of-age novel told in vignettes  About growing up in the barrio, wanting to be a writer  Female strength across generations, need to do better than the strong great-grandmother, desire for a new name and a new (stronger) identity  Significance of the name Esperanza  Difficulty of biculturalism: Chicano or Chicana is a chosen identity of some Mexican Americans in the United States. Both names are chosen identities within the Mexican-American community in the United States; however, these terms have a wide range of meanings in various parts of the Southwest. The term became widely used during the Chicano Movement by Mexican Americans to express pride in a shared cultural, ethnic and community identity. LOIS LOWRY  Author of more than thirty children’s books  Dystopian children’s fiction exploring topics like totalitarianism, racism, the Holocaust, terminal illness, murder  From her blog: “I am a grandmother now. For my own grandchildren – and for all those of their generation – I try, through writing, to convey my passionate awareness that we live intertwined on this planet and that our future depends upon our caring more, and doing more, for one another.” THE GIVER  Set in a dystopian society that has taken away pain + strife in favor of “sameness”  Jonas selected to be a “Receiver of Memory”  Community without emotions so that order can be preserved easily  Sense of a rule-governed world  Plea for human emotion, a critical attitude, natural interaction, against totalitarianism POSTMODERNISM SINCE 1945 As implied by its name, the Postmodernist period occurred directly after the Modernist period. Events that inspired this movement were the end of World War II, the Korean War, Vietnam War, the Cold War, and the Civil Rights movement. Postmodernism works were characterized by multiple qualities. These contemporary works often featured ordinary places and portray a release from meaning, a desire to correct the past, and a desire to enjoy oneself. With the end of World War II and the discovery of the holocaust and the atomic bomb, American society began to see reality as subjective. New types of art displayed this new mindset as well as the literature of the time period did. There was also a strong desire to correct the past and right the wrongs that occurred during both of the World Wars. - Skin color as just one marker of identity RALPH ELLISON – INVISIBLE MAN Invisible Man is a novel by Ralph Ellison addresses many of the social and intellectual issues facing African Americans early in the twentieth century, including black nationalism, the relationship between black identity and Marxism, and the reformist racial policies of Booker T. Washington, as well as issues of individuality and personal identity. The narrator of Invisible Man is a nameless young black man who moves in a 20th-century United States where reality is surreal and who can survive only through pretence. Because the people he encounters "see only my surroundings, themselves, or figments of their imagination," he is effectively invisible. He leaves the racist South for New York City, but his encounters continue to disgust him. Ultimately, he retreats to a hole in the ground, which he furnishes and makes his home. There, brilliantly illuminated by stolen electricity, he can seek his identity. The invisibility of Ellison’s protagonist is about the invisibility of identity—above all, what it means to be a black man —and its various masks, confronting both personal experience and the force of social illusions. The novel’s special quality is its deft combination of existential inquiry into identity as such—what it means to be socially or racially invisible—with a more sociopolitical allegory of the history of the African-American experience in America. The first- person narrator remains nameless, retrospectively recounting his shifts through the surreal reality of surroundings and people from the racist South to the no less inhospitable world of New York City.  Naturalism, expressionism, surrealism & black oral culture  Mood of blues, structure of jazz improvisation  Presents the life of blacks as warfare along ethnic lines  Argues that the African American will be disrespected unless he  asserts himself  Note “Keep this nigger running” accompanies the movement -South a NYC -Innocence  experience -Self-deception  self-knowledge -Blindness  recognition  Dominance of irony & grotesque elements TONI MORRISON  Nobel Prize in Literature, 1993  Use of a wide range of the AfricanAmerican heritage: -History -Tales -Folklore -Jazz & blues, etc.  Explores human nature through the specific experiences of blacks (ethnic specificity – universal appeal)  Imaginative rewriting of US history from a black, female perspective  how history affects the individual BELOVED Beloved was set in 1860s and 70s explores love and the supernatural. Inspired by real-world figure Margaret Garner (historical facts interwoven with fictional events), main character Sethe, a former slave, is haunted by her decision to kill her children rather than see them become enslaved. Three of her children survived, but her infant daughter died at her hand. Yet Sethe's daughter returns as a living entity who becomes an unrelenting presence in her home. For this spellbinding work, Morrison won several literary awards, including the 1988 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Beloved offers a harrowing look at slavery and its lasting impact. The intensely shocking and moving narrative was written in a variety of voices and lengthy fragmentary monologues, which, like the character of Beloved herself, are sometimes ambiguous. The breakup of chronology is used to reflect the mental breakup of characters suffering from the memory of slavery. Morrison’s beautiful language and intense imagery, however, were rightly celebrated in this classic work.  Appearance of the ghost figure of Beloved, a manifestation of the protagonist’s guilt -Beloved bonds with her sister Denver -Beloved drains the life force from Sethe AUGUST WILSON  Grew up in a racist environment  Initial difficulty with Black English: The reason I couldn't write dialogue was because I didn't respect the way blacks talked; so I always tried to alter it.  Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom performed on Broadway + wins Pulitzer Prize in 1982  Aspiration to write one play per decade of the 20th century (Pittsburgh cycle) I'm taking each decade and looking back at one of the most important questions that blacks confronted in that decade and writing a play about it. . . . Put them all together and you have a history.  US history as personal history + with its psychological impact on an individual  Historical past explains African-American present FENCES Fences is a 1985 play by American playwright August Wilson. Set in the 1950s, it is the sixth in Wilson's ten-part "Pittsburgh Cycle". Like all of the "Pittsburgh" plays, Fences explores the evolving African-American experience and examines race relations, among other themes. The play won the 1987 Pulitzer Prize for Drama and the 1987 Tony Award for Best Play. It focuses on the frustrations of a former baseball player of the Negro League who could not achieve his dream because of racial segregation.  Questions of responsibility & equal opportunity -References of “fences”: -Fence around the house -Limits at work -Racial division in professional sports -Metaphorical fences that Troy puts between himself & his family  Cory’s dream of upward mobility vs. Troy’s frustration ASIAN-AMERICAN LITERATURE  Waves of immigration after labor shortages in the U.S., e.g. -Chinese 1850 – 1882 -Japanese 1885 – 1924 -Korean 1903 – 1905 -South Asians 1904 – 1924 -Filipino 1907 – 1930  Internment camps for Japanese Americans during WW II  Civil Rights Movement: collective “Asian-American” identity  Nonetheless: heterogeneity of the ethnic group despite the umbrella term “Asian American”  “model minority”  Currently about 5 % of the U.S. population MAXINE HONG KINGSTON  born in Stockton, CA of parents who ran a Chinese laundry. THE WOMAN WARRIOR – A GIRLHOOD AMONG GHOSTS  Biculturalism  “My American life has been such a disappointment.”  Focus on gender, cultural identity, acculturation, racism, education  Against individual + cultural repression  Narrator: ideal of the Chinese warrior woman’s strength in view  of the white American “ghosts”  “talk-stories” of her ancestors’ Chinese past interwoven with  accounts of her American present  Hybrid genre (factual fiction) NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE At first Native American Literature was made of stories told orally. These stories were mostly myth and folklore about how the people were connected to the earth and the plants and animals. They also spoke about the spiritual connection between the leaving and the dead. The transition from the 19th to 20th century meant that Native American writers could publish and write their own books and novels without having to go through an English translator. CONTEMPORANEITY  Combination of oral story telling and European literary technique (novel, short story)  Literature is strongly rooted in myths and symbolic archetypes  Personification  Many of the collection of poems, and novels incorporate story telling and repetition The main purposes is to fuse the literate and oral cultures and to construct a ethnic: identity of native Americans in the late 20th century.  Preservation of characteristics of pre-colonial Native American literature  Civil Rights Movement’s spirit of rebellion inspires Native American resistance + critique of living conditions of Native Americans in the 1960s and 70s  1968: founding of AIM (American Indian Movement) to coordinate the efforts of individual tribes  demand of fishing rights + other privileges granted by contracts with the U.S. government: Trail of Broken Treaties protest in Washington, D.C. in 1971  Red Power (inspired by Black Power Movement)  “deassimilation” of Native Americans  growth of the Native population (mainly through self-declaration in census), ca. 1,7 % N. SCOTT MOMADAY (KIOWA)  Born in Oklahoma; Kiowa and Cherokee heritage; childhood on a reservation, college at U of New Mexico, Ph.D. at Stanford University; various professorships  Frequent plot: -Quest for wholeness by a mixed-blood Native American - Difficulty of hanging on to past traditions in a changed world  Combination of visions + actual events