Street Prostitution, Appunti di Diritto

Scarica Street Prostitution e più Appunti in PDF di Diritto solo su Docsity! U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services www.cops.usdoj.gov S t r e e t P r o s t i t u t i o n 2 n d E d i t i o n by Michael S. Scott Kelly Dedel Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Problem-Specific Guides Series No. 2 www.PopCenter.org Got a Problem? We’ve got answers! Log onto the Center for Problem-Oriented Policing website at www.popcenter.org for a wealth of information to help you deal more effectively with crime and disorder in your community, including: • Web-enhanced versions of all currently available Guides • Interactive training exercises • Online access to research and police practices • Online problem analysis module. Designed for police and those who work with them to address community problems, www.popcenter.org is a great resource in problem-oriented policing. Supported by the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing iAbout the Problem-Specific Guides Series About the Problem-Specific Guides Series The Problem-Specific Guides summarize knowledge about how police can reduce the harm caused by specific crime and disorder problems. They are guides to prevention and to improving the overall response to incidents, not to investigating offenses or handling specific incidents. Neither do they cover all of the technical details about how to implement specific responses. The guides are written for police—of whatever rank or assignment—who must address the specific problem the guides cover. The guides will be most useful to officers who: • Understand basic problem-oriented policing principles and methods. The guides are not primers in problem- oriented policing. They deal only briefly with the initial decision to focus on a particular problem, methods to analyze the problem, and means to assess the results of a problem-oriented policing project. They are designed to help police decide how best to analyze and address a problem they have already identified. (A companion series of Problem- Solving Tools guides has been produced to aid in various aspects of problem analysis and assessment.) • Can look at a problem in depth. Depending on the complexity of the problem, you should be prepared to spend perhaps weeks, or even months, analyzing and responding to it. Carefully studying a problem before responding helps you design the right strategy, one that is most likely to work in your community. You should not blindly adopt the responses others have used; you must decide whether they are appropriate to your local situation. What is true in one place may not be true elsewhere; what works in one place may not work everywhere. ii Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition • Are willing to consider new ways of doing police business. The guides describe responses that other police departments have used or that researchers have tested. While not all of these responses will be appropriate to your particular problem, they should help give a broader view of the kinds of things you could do. You may think you cannot implement some of these responses in your jurisdiction, but perhaps you can. In many places, when police have discovered a more effective response, they have succeeded in having laws and policies changed, improving the response to the problem. (A companion series of Response Guides has been produced to help you understand how commonly-used police responses work on a variety of problems.) • Understand the value and the limits of research knowledge. For some types of problems, a lot of useful research is available to the police; for other problems, little is available. Accordingly, some guides in this series summarize existing research whereas other guides illustrate the need for more research on that particular problem. Regardless, research has not provided definitive answers to all the questions you might have about the problem. The research may help get you started in designing your own responses, but it cannot tell you exactly what to do. This will depend greatly on the particular nature of your local problem. In the interest of keeping the guides readable, not every piece of relevant research has been cited, nor has every point been attributed to its sources. To have done so would have overwhelmed and distracted the reader. The references listed at the end of each guide are those drawn on most heavily; they are not a complete bibliography of research on the subject. • Are willing to work with others to find effective solutions to the problem. The police alone cannot implement many of the responses discussed in the guides. They must frequently implement them in partnership with iiiAbout the Problem-Specific Guides Series other responsible private and public bodies including other government agencies, non-governmental organizations, private businesses, public utilities, community groups, and individual citizens. An effective problem-solver must know how to forge genuine partnerships with others and be prepared to invest considerable effort in making these partnerships work. Each guide identifies particular individuals or groups in the community with whom police might work to improve the overall response to that problem. Thorough analysis of problems often reveals that individuals and groups other than the police are in a stronger position to address problems and that police ought to shift some greater responsibility to them to do so. Response Guide No. 3, Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety Problems, provides further discussion of this topic. The COPS Office defines community policing as “a policing philosophy that promotes and supports organizational strategies to address the causes and reduce the fear of crime and social disorder through problem-solving tactics and police-community partnerships.” These guides emphasize problem-solving and police-community partnerships in the context of addressing specific public safety problems. For the most part, the organizational strategies that can facilitate problem-solving and police-community partnerships vary considerably and discussion of them is beyond the scope of these guides. These guides have drawn on research findings and police practices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. Even though laws, customs and police practices vary from country to country, it is apparent that the police everywhere experience common problems. In a world that is becoming increasingly interconnected, it is important that police be aware of research and successful practices beyond the borders of their own countries. Contents About the Guide Series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v The Problem of Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 What This Guide Does and Does Not Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Harms Caused by Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Moral and Nuisance Concerns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Public Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Personal Safety Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Spillover-Effect Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Economic Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Civil Rights Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Police Integrity Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Factors Contributing to Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Street Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Street Prostitutes’ Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Pimps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Sexual Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Areas Where Street Prostitution Exists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Links Between Street Prostitution and Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Understanding Your Local Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Asking the Right Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Police and Community Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Street Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Street Prostitutes’ Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Pimps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Sexual Transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Drug Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Current Responses to the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Measuring Your Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 viiContents viii Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 General Principles for an Effective Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Specific Responses To Address Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Deterring Prostitutes and Clients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Targeting Prostitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Targeting Clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Changing the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Responses With Limited Effectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Appendix: Summary of Responses to Street Prostitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Recommended Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3The Problem of Street Prostitution Moral and Nuisance Concerns • Prostitution offends some citizens’ moral standards. • Prostitution is a nuisance to passersby and to nearby residents and businesses. • Prostitutes and clients offend uninvolved people in the area when they solicit them. • Juveniles, less capable of making informed choices, may become prostitutes. Public Health Concerns • Prostitutes and clients may spread sexually transmitted diseases such as syphilis, herpes, and AIDS.§ • Used condoms, syringes, and other paraphernalia left on the ground are unsightly and potentially hazardous. • Prostitutes who do not have access to proper facilities may urinate, defecate, or bathe in public. § Contrary to popular belief, prostitution has not been demonstrated to be a primary means of HIV transmission, at least not in the United States, largely because most street prostitution sex acts are oral rather than vaginal (oral transmission is less likely), most prostitutes insist that clients use condoms (less true of drug-dependent prostitutes), and transmission is more difficult from female to male. Of course, fear of contracting HIV has likely changed the sex practices of some prostitutes and clients. HIV transmission among prostitutes is more likely to occur from sharing needles for drug injections (Weitzer 2000). Used condoms and syringes commonly found on the ground in street prostitution areas are unsightly and potentially hazardous. Bob Heimberger 4 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Personal Safety Concerns • Clients may harm prostitutes. • Clients or prostitutes may be defrauded, robbed, or assaulted. • Pimps may financially and physically exploit prostitutes. Spillover-Effect Concerns • Street prostitution and street drug markets are often linked. • Prostitution may provide the seedbed for organized crime. • Prostitutes create parking and traffic problems where they congregate. • Prostitution attracts strangers and criminals to a neighborhood. Economic Concerns • Legitimate businesses may lose customers who avoid the area because of prostitution. • Prostitutes’ presence may negatively affect the area economy, reducing property values and limiting property use. Civil Rights Concerns • Prostitutes, as citizens, have rights that need to be protected. Police Integrity Concerns • Policing prostitution creates special opportunities for police officers to engage in unethical conduct, such as taking payments in exchange for nonenforcement, because prostitutes, pimps, and clients are in weak positions to complain about police misconduct.2 5The Problem of Street Prostitution Factors Contributing to Street Prostitution Understanding the factors that are known to contribute to your problem will help you frame your own local analysis questions, determine good effectiveness measures, recognize key intervention points, and select an appropriate set of responses for your particular problem. The literature on street prostitution provides a general picture of street prostitutes, clients, pimps, sexual transactions, areas where street prostitution thrives, and links between street prostitution and drugs. Street Prostitutes Street prostitutes have lower status than indoor prostitutes. They are often in some state of personal decline (e.g., running away from abusive situations, becoming drug-dependent, deteriorating psychologically, and/or getting less physically attractive).3 Most have social, economic, and health problems. Most first turn to prostitution at a young age, often before they are 18.4 Street prostitutes are not equally committed to prostitution: some are deeply committed for financial and lifestyle reasons; some are committed only due to drug dependency; and some are weakly committed, engaging in prostitution because it is the easiest way for them to make some money. Their inability to find adequately paying work elsewhere is the most common reason prostitutes give to explain their choice to work on the street.5 Many prostitutes try to leave the streets, although they often return and then leave again. Most return to prostitution because their limited education and lack of skills make finding employment very difficult. Without a means to support themselves and their children, they may think staying on the streets is less risky than leaving prostitution.6 8 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Pimps seldom procure clients for prostitutes, because clients do not typically want to associate with anyone other than the prostitute. Pimps do not offer prostitutes much protection against client violence, but do offer them protection against assault by other pimps.§ Although classic pimp relationships still exist in both the United States and the United Kingdom, many men with serious drug addictions force their girlfriends into prostitution to support their drug habits.18 Pimps use violence and drug dependency as means to control prostitutes. Many pimps resemble the batterers in domestic violence situations, and women under their control often react similarly to domestic violence victims.19 They may express love and admiration for their pimps and may feel they deserve the violence. Pimps control both their freedom and their finances. By some estimates, pimps take 60 to 70 percent of prostitutes’ earnings. Sexual Transactions The prices for sex acts vary a little from community to community. Depending on how desperate the prostitutes are for money, they typically charge $20 to $50 for oral sex, and $50 to $100 for sexual intercourse. Among crack-addicted prostitutes, the price can be as low as the market price for a single rock of crack cocaine. The typical sexual transaction takes around 10 minutes in a vehicle (usually for oral sex), and around 25 minutes indoors. Areas Where Street Prostitution Exists Street prostitution markets go through stages of development—they emerge, expand, stabilize, and disappear.20 Sometimes they emerge by accident, when a few prostitutes happen upon a new location; sometimes they emerge because of changes in an area’s traffic or commercial patterns (e.g., § One study found, however, that women with pimps experienced higher levels of client violence than those without pimps. Women with pimps tended to work in more dangerous areas and take more risks because of pressure to earn a certain amount of money (Norton-Hawk 2004). 9The Problem of Street Prostitution new roadways or new businesses such as adult entertainment establishments); and sometimes they emerge because police enforcement displaced them. It is important that an area be known for street prostitution so clients will know where to look. Street prostitution is more prevalent in run-down neighborhoods. Those that are populated heavily by unattached males are more vulnerable to street prostitution than those with a lot of women, families, or elderly residents, because the likelihood of vocal community opposition is lower. For street prostitution to thrive, the surrounding neighborhood cannot be too crime-ridden or appear too threatening to potential clients. Consequently, it is often found in areas that are marginal or in transition, rather than in thoroughly blighted areas. However, the emergence of street prostitution will almost certainly speed up decline. Neighborhood redevelopment or gentrification frequently prompts strong community opposition to street prostitution, and clearly drives much of the pressure on the police to control it. Street prostitution areas are typically small, less than a square mile. Larger cities usually have several such areas. They are typically industrial sites; declining residential areas; those near major thoroughfares, including tunnels, bridges, or airport access roads; or those near transportation hubs, such as train and bus stations. Street prostitution flourishes around convention centers and hotels, especially when mostly male conventions are held. 10 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Street prostitution thrives in areas where it does not conflict with legitimate business, but rather, supports and is supported by that business. The following foster street prostitution: • places where sexual transactions can occur, such as cheap motels and hotels, dimly lit parking lots, alleys, and abandoned buildings • places where prostitutes can take a break, such as coffee shops or bars • places near a street drug market, so prostitutes and clients can readily buy drugs • places offering escape avenues from the police and dangerous clients • roads that allow drivers to slow down or stop, ideally where the driver’s side of the vehicle is closest to the curb. Street prostitution often thrives in areas where there are cheap motels and hotels. Bob Heimberger 13Understanding Your Local Problem Understanding Your Local Problem The information provided above is only a generalized description of street prostitution. You must combine the basic facts with a more specific understanding of your local problem. Analyzing the local problem carefully will help you design a more effective response strategy. Stakeholders Police are not solely responsible for addressing this problem. In addition to criminal justice agencies, the following groups have an interest in the street prostitution problem, and you should consider the contribution they might make to gathering information about the problem and responding to it: • elected and appointed local government officials • public health agencies • prostitutes’ support organizations • social service agencies • business associations • tourism and convention promotion bureaus • neighborhood associations • traffic engineering departments. Asking the Right Questions The following are some critical questions you should ask in analyzing your particular problem of street prostitution, even if the answers are not always readily available. Your answers to these and other questions will help you choose the most appropriate set of responses later on. 14 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition There are many ways to enlist community members in the task of gathering information to document the problem’s scope.23 These include using handheld video cameras to record activity, taking guided walks with police to identify areas where residents feel unsafe, highlighting trouble spots on neighborhood maps, and using data collection forms to record the date, time, and nature of events they witness. Police and Community Members • How concerned is the police department about street prostitution? How concerned is the community? What groups are particularly concerned, and why? What specific concerns do they express? • How organized and active are community members who oppose street prostitution? What street prostitution level are they willing to tolerate? Street Prostitutes§ • Does street prostitution take only one form (e.g., female prostitutes and male clients), or are there several different forms (e.g., homosexual or transvestite prostitution)? • What do you know about the prostitutes (e.g., age, gender, race, criminal history, social service history, substance abuse history, residence)? • Do street prostitutes commit crimes against clients (e.g., robbery or theft)? Are street prostitutes crime victims? • How committed are prostitutes to prostitution? How committed are they to a particular location? • How many prostitutes have tried to leave the streets before? What drew them back? What additional services could have supported their decision to leave? § The Raleigh (North Carolina) Police Department conducted a problem-solving project using this guide’s first edition. Refer to Weisel (2004) for an excellent example of adapting the processes described here to local conditions. The report also contains useful sample survey tools for prostitutes and clients. 15Understanding Your Local Problem Street Prostitutes’ Clients • What do you know about the clients (e.g., age, race, occupation, socioeconomic status, marital status, criminal history, residence)? • How committed are clients to prostitution? How committed are they to soliciting prostitutes on the street or in a particular area? • How often do you rearrest clients for soliciting prostitutes? Pimps • Do the prostitutes work for pimps who profit from their income? • How many prostitutes do pimps manage? • Are pimps well-known to police? If so, how many pimps operate in the jurisdiction? • Is there pimp competition in prostitute control? Sexual Transactions • How, specifically, do street prostitutes and clients negotiate and complete sexual transactions? Do clients solicit prostitutes on foot or from a vehicle? Where do the sexual transactions take place? • Do prostitutes and clients take precautions to prevent sexually transmitted disease? Environment • Does street prostitution take place in more than one area? What conditions make the area(s) attractive for street prostitution? If street prostitution occurs in several areas, how are they similar and different? 18 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition • reduced volume of discarded condoms, syringes, and other prostitution-related paraphernalia • reduced total reported crime in target areas compared with control areas (keeping in mind that changes may be due to other factors, and that reported crime does not always correlate with actual crime). 19Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution Your analysis of your local problem should give you a better understanding of the factors that are contributing to it. Once you have analyzed your local problem and established a baseline for measuring effectiveness, you should consider possible responses to address the problem. The following response strategies provide a foundation of ideas for addressing your particular problem. These strategies are drawn from a variety of research studies and police reports. Several of these strategies may apply to your community’s particular problem. It is critical that you tailor responses to local circumstances, and that you can justify each response based on reliable analysis. In most cases, an effective strategy will involve implementing several different responses. Law enforcement responses alone are seldom effective in reducing or solving the problem. Do not limit yourself to considering what police can do to better address the problem: carefully consider who else in your community shares responsibility for the problem and can help police better respond to it. The responsibility of responding, in some cases, may need to be shifted toward those who have the capacity to implement more effective responses. (For more detailed information on shifting and sharing responsibility, see Response Guide No. 3, Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety Problems). General Principles for an Effective Strategy You should consider a few general principles when developing your response strategy. Which particular responses you adopt should depend on what you learn from a careful analysis of your local problem. The responses selected should be carefully focused on the angle of the problem that you are 20 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition trying to resolve. Strategies seeking to reduce the harms caused by and experienced by prostitutes are more likely to work than those seeking to eliminate prostitution altogether. Strategies focused exclusively on arresting prostitutes are unlikely to be effective.25 At a minimum, both prostitutes’ and clients’ conduct should be addressed. An effective strategy not only must force prostitutes off the streets and get them to stop their offensive behavior, but also must give them viable alternatives: either to get out of prostitution altogether, or to operate in less-offensive locations, times, or ways. This usually requires greater cooperation between the police and various service organizations.26 The most effective responses to the problem of street prostitution rely heavily on social services for prostitutes to encourage their permanent exit from the street. Police must work closely with service providers to ensure the various enforcement- and treatment-based responses are well-coordinated.§ The transient nature of street prostitution and the fact that some responses may lead to displacement mean that jurisdictions must share information to make a significant regional impact on the problem. Specific Responses to Address Street Prostitution Deterring Prostitutes and Clients 1. Enforcing laws prohibiting soliciting, patronizing, and loitering for the purposes of prostitution. The main strategy police use to control street prostitution is enforcing laws prohibiting soliciting, patronizing, and loitering for the purposes of prostitution. Enforcement strategies are expensive; each arrest costs thousands of dollars to process. By themselves, they are ineffective at either controlling street prostitution or protecting prostitutes from harm.27 Increased police enforcement temporarily reduces the number of prostitutes on the § The Charlotte-Mecklenburg (North Carolina) Police Department’s multiagency response to street prostitution required social service providers to ride with police officers in the patrol districts implementing the program. These ride-alongs helped to create mutual understanding and appreciation for each stakeholder’s role in the program (Charlotte-Mecklenburg Police Department 2003). 23Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution deterrent value wears off after time, however. In high- volume arrest campaigns, the chances that police will arrest innocent people increase, unless they take special precautions. Without some follow-up court intervention or measures to change the environment, intensive enforcement campaigns only temporarily interrupt street prostitution, or move it elsewhere: they do not shut down a street prostitution market entirely. Intensive arrest campaigns may inadvertently increase the risk of harm street prostitutes face.29 To avoid police detection and to compensate for the reduced number of men soliciting services, prostitutes may work longer hours in more isolated, unfamiliar, or unsafe areas. The clientele in these areas may be unfamiliar, and yet the prostitutes may not take their usual safety precautions. As a result of increased competition for fewer clients, some prostitutes lower their prices, and thus must work in these conditions for longer periods to earn the same amount of money. 2. Establishing a highly visible police presence. A highly visible police presence, typically with extra uniformed officers, is intended to discourage area street prostitution. Extra police presence is expensive, of course, and is effective only if the police follow it up with more permanent strategies.§ It can also create the perception that the area is unsafe. Alternative methods to establish a police presence are to open a police station (e.g., a storefront office, mobile office, or kiosk) in the area, or affix antiprostitution warning signs to police vehicles patrolling the area. Private security forces might also be deployed to supplement a police presence. § See National Research Council (2004) for further discussion of the effectiveness of so-called “hot-spots policing.” 24 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition 3. Relaxing the regulation of indoor prostitution venues. Whether changes in enforcement levels against indoor prostitution (e.g., massage parlors, call girls, bar girls, and escort services) will affect street prostitution depends on how easily prostitutes can move back and forth between the streets and indoors. The conventional wisdom is that there is little movement between them, mostly due to the high proportion of street prostitutes who are heavy drug users and thus not likely to be hired by indoor venues.30 But, within limits, prostitutes do have some mobility. The laws related to indoor prostitution are likely to affect the degree of mobility (it is legal in the United Kingdom, and illegal in the United States). Indoor prostitutes indoors seem more easily able to work on the streets when they have to than street prostitutes can move indoors.31 Relaxing the regulation of indoor prostitution may be perceived as condoning prostitution; in addition, indoor venues are of serious concern to police because of their role in the sexual exploitation of trafficked women.§ 4. Enhancing fines/penalties for prostitution-related offenses committed within specified high-activity zones. Some communities have enhanced penalties for prostitution-related offenses committed within specific areas. These penalty enhancements are intended to move the street prostitution market to other locations so the target area can be redeveloped. You should be careful that the problem is not displaced to areas where the impact will be even worse. Research evidence about this response’s effectiveness is lacking. § See Problem-Specific Guide No. 38, The Exploitation of Trafficked Women. 5. Banning prostitutes or clients from certain areas. Many courts order prostitutes and clients to stay out of specifically defined areas where street prostitution is prevalent, as a condition of either bail or probation.32 This practice is commonly referred to as “mapping” offenders out of areas. Enforcing the orders requires that police have good physical descriptions of the offenders and know the specific parameters of the orders.33 This practice may, however, displace prostitutes to more- remote areas outside the prohibited zone, areas which may prove more hazardous to the prostitutes. In addition, forbidding their entry into certain areas may sever ties to the only social support networks they may have.34 6. Using community justice panels and community service sentences in lieu of incarceration or fines. Instead of traditional criminal justice sanctions, prostitutes and clients can be required to appear before community justice panels that focus on restoring the harms the community suffers.§ Community service sanctions, when properly monitored and enforced, have been shown to be more effective than jail time or fines alone.35 7. Enlisting community members to provide surveillance or to publicly protest against prostitutes or clients. Direct community activism in the form of organized marches, rallies, or confrontations of prostitutes and clients has proved effective in disrupting and moving street prostitution markets.36 Neighborhood associations can also post warning signs on buildings and utility poles indicating their intolerance for street prostitution in their community, warning prostitutes and potential clients that the area is under surveillance, and indicating the applicable penalties.37 This response 25Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution § In San Diego, California, men charged with soliciting are required to appear before a panel consisting of community members, prosecutors, public health workers, social service staff who work with prostitutes, and police (San Diego Police Department and San Diego City Attorney’s Office 2003). Men charged with soliciting in Indianapolis, Indiana, are required to return to the community in which the offense occurred to publicly face area residents and to perform community service work there (American Prosecutors Research Institute 2004). 28 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Targeting Prostitutes 9. Serving restraining orders/civil injunctions against habitual prostitutes. A small percentage of prostitutes and pimps may be responsible for most of the complaints in a prostitution area. If you can establish this, you might more productively target your efforts at those few, rather than at the larger population of offenders. In the United Kingdom, Antisocial Behavior Orders (ASBOs) are used against habitual prostitutes to forbid a range of prostitution-related behaviors.45 ASBO violations carry stiffer penalties than prostitution charges. In several jurisdictions, the police have coordinated with merchants whose business is negatively affected by street prostitution to obtain restraining orders against prostitutes, prohibiting them from engaging in specific behavior within a specific area.46 In San Bernardino, California, certain existing municipal codes have been incorporated into court-ordered civil injunctions against known prostitutes. Violations of the restraining orders result in jail time and fines that exceed the usual penalties. The specific prohibitions mentioned in the San Bernardino restraining order are: • approaching or signaling to any vehicle in any street, alley, or other public passage area, thus causing the vehicle to stop, unless a legitimate emergency so requires • blocking the passage of any person or vehicle in any street, walkway, sidewalk, driveway, alley, or other public passage area • being on, or causing others to be on, private property, except (1) with the property owner’s prior written consent, or (2) in the property owner’s presence and with his or her voluntary consent 29Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution • being on the premises of an uninhabited or abandoned building • making, causing, or encouraging others to violate noise restrictions • fighting in public or any place open to public view or hearing • drinking any alcoholic beverage in public or any place open to public view • urinating or defecating in public or any place open to public view • littering, including discarding cans, bottles, cigarettes, condoms, or hypodermic needles other than in a proper trash can • damaging or vandalizing another’s property, including any light fixture, fence, gate, wall, or window • applying graffiti to any public or private property, including any building, fence, wall, garage door, street sign, tree, pole, or vehicle • congregating in any public place for the purpose of engaging in any conduct prohibited by this injunction, or any criminal activity • intimidating, provoking, harassing, challenging, or carrying out any acts of retaliation, including, but not limited to, using abusive or vulgar language to harass any person (San Bernardino Police Department 1999). You should consult with legal counsel about the requirements for obtaining restraining orders. It may also take a lot of time and effort to obtain the documentation necessary for a restraining order. 10. Mediating conflicts between prostitutes and the community. While negotiating with offenders is not common for the police, street prostitutes have responded positively in several communities where the police and community have requested that they stay away 30 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition from certain areas or reduce their nuisance behavior in exchange for some tolerance.47 In one Vancouver, British Columbia community, community groups posted signs and maps requesting that prostitutes stay out of certain areas.48 Obviously, it can be difficult to get prostitutes to comply with agreements. 11. Imposing curfews on prostitutes. Curfews can be imposed on prostitutes as a condition of either bail or probation. The purpose is to deny prostitutes the opportunity to work during peak hours. To be effective, police or corrections officials must monitor and enforce the curfews. 12. Helping prostitutes to quit. Enforcement strategies will not be successful without an array of social services to help prostitutes leave the streets. It is particularly important to break the connection between drug use and sex work. Moving toward and finally leaving the streets is a long and complex process, and services must be provided at the right time and in the proper sequence.49 For example, meeting the basic needs of child care, housing, public benefits, and drug treatment should come before intensive job training or employment programs. Services should be easy for women to access and should have flexible appointment times, reasonable wait times, extended hours of operation, and record-keeping practices that are sensitive to many prostitutes’ concerns for confidentiality.50 They should also be specifically designed to address the women’s needs in the context of their work as street prostitutes.§ § The Prostitution Empowerment, Education, and Resources Society (PEERS) in Victoria, British Columbia helps women quit street prostitution in favor of mainstream employment. The program was specifically designed by and for women involved in prostitution who were deterred from using other non-prostitution-specific services (Rabinovitz and Strega 2004). 33Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution • refrain from using drugs when working on the street (drug use reduces awareness, control of self, and control of the situation) • carry a whistle or other attack prevention device • not carry drugs or excessive cash.58 The New Westminster (British Columbia) Police Service developed a voluntary forensic identification registry for prostitutes. In the event that women working the streets are abducted or go missing, police have a photograph, fingerprints, DNA sample, and physical description to use when investigating the disappearance. This effort greatly improved relations between police and prostitutes by demonstrating police concern for prostitutes’ safety. The strategy also increased prostitutes’ willingness to provide information on various crimes. The media’s interest in this initiative may have also deterred potentially violent clients.59 Obviously, some people will object to police efforts to protect prostitutes, believing that doing so condones prostitution. Targeting Clients Clients are generally more easily deterred than prostitutes.60 Almost any form of official or community intervention in clients’ behavior is sufficient to deter most clients from patronizing street prostitutes, at least at a particular location. This offers some justification for focusing responses on clients. However, since there are many more potential clients than street prostitutes, deterring individual clients does not necessarily reduce the overall demand for street prostitution.61 To deter potential clients, they must believe there is a high likelihood they will be caught and publicly identified. 34 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition 15. Exposing clients to publicity. Community groups have organized to expose prostitution clients’ identity to either the general public or the clients’ families or employers. This can be done by photographing or videotaping clients, calling clients’ families or employers, writing down license plate numbers of vehicles seen driving around prostitution strips, mailing warning letters or postcards to registered vehicle owners, or posting clients’ names or photographs on street posts, billboards, telephone hotline fliers, and internet sites. Some police agencies have sent official letters or postcards warning prostitution clients about the legal and health consequences of patronizing prostitutes.62 In some instances, they send these warnings only to those arrested for soliciting prostitutes; in other instances, they send them to the registered owners of suspicious vehicles seen driving through street prostitution areas. In some areas, police use closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras to discourage potential clients from hanging around.63 Some police agencies and local governments have publicized the names and photographs of clients who are either arrested for and/or convicted of prostitution- related offenses. The names and photographs may appear on television, in newspapers, or on internet websites.§ Many media outlets, however, refuse to participate, deeming it unnewsworthy and not wanting to appear to be an agent of the government. Some local governments have purchased advertising space to publish the information. There should be safeguards so that innocent people are not unfairly implicated or accused in illegal activity.§§ Further, once a client has faced publicity from an initial arrest, he has little to lose, and subsequent threats of publicity are unlikely to be effective.64 § In 2003 in Omaha, Nebraska, billboards with the slogan “If you are convicted of soliciting a prostitute, you will see your name here” publicized the names of six to 12 offenders at a time (Hughes 2004). In Akron, Ohio, the “Operation John Be Gone” website, which posted the photographs of men charged with soliciting a prostitute, drew more than 100,000 hits in its first year online (MacMillan 2005). §§ See Persons (1996) for a thorough discussion of the effectiveness and legality of publicizing prostitution clients’ names. 35Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution 16. Notifying those with influence over clients’ conduct. Employers, schools, the military, convention organizers, and other individuals or groups often exert significant informal influence over prostitution clients’ conduct. You can leverage this influence by seeking such third parties’ cooperation to discipline clients who come to police attention. This strategy is not intended merely to shame clients, but rather, to change their behavior through disciplinary systems outside the formal justice system. Keep in mind that some forms of discipline, such as employment termination, can be severe. 17. Restricting clients’ ability to drive. The city of Portland, Oregon is widely credited for pioneering the use of vehicle forfeiture laws against prostitution clients. In Portland, most vehicles were returned to the owners under deferred prosecution arrangements, with low levels (about 1%) of clients re-offending.65 Some jurisdictions have passed laws that allow judges to suspend or revoke the driving privileges of those convicted of patronizing prostitution.66 This approach is intended to deter both potential clients and those who regularly search for, and have sexual transactions with, prostitutes in cars. Many drivers continue to drive without valid licenses, however, so some enforcement will likely be necessary. Changing the Environment 18. Closing streets and alleys, diverting traffic, or regulating parking. Traffic flow and patterns influence potential clients’ perceptions about their chances of negotiating a transaction and their risks of getting caught. Traffic-related factors are especially significant where sex acts take place in vehicles. Many clients stop to solicit prostitutes while on their way somewhere 38 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition 24. Providing trash cans. Providing trash cans for the proper disposal of hazardous and unsightly items (e.g., condoms and lubricants) can both reduce the public health hazard posed by the items and reduce the number of resident complaints.75 The extent to which this will work depends on prostitutes’ and johns’ willingness to use the trash cans and on placing them near where sex acts occur. Responses With Limited Effectiveness 25. Conducting sweeps. Sweeps are large-scale arrest campaigns targeting suspected prostitutes, without the intent to prosecute. Sweeps have long been a police strategy to control street prostitution, particularly when they have had few legal alternatives for dealing with the problem, yet have been pressured to do something about it. There is little evidence that sweeps are anything other than temporarily effective at removing prostitutes from the street, and they do considerable harm to the criminal justice system’s integrity. It is not uncommon for police to arrest innocent people during sweeps. 26. Harassing and intimidating prostitutes. When police have been placed under intense pressure to control street prostitution, yet have lacked adequate legal alternatives for doing so, some have turned to harassing and intimidating prostitutes, in some instances forcing them to relocate to another jurisdiction. There is no evidence that this is at all effective, and it undermines police integrity. 27. Suspending or revoking government aid to prostitutes. Many street prostitutes receive government aid in one form or another (e.g., for housing, dependent children, unemployment insurance, and/or disability), but would not qualify for such if they reported their prostitution income. You might share arrest and intelligence information with government agencies providing the aid.76 The threat of losing government aid might compel some prostitutes to quit. On the other hand, it might only deepen the financial plight of some prostitutes, further compelling them toward prostitution. For this approach to be viable, adequate social services must be available to help prostitutes. If you use this response, you should take care not to unduly harm any dependent children. 28. Establishing formal or informal red-light districts where street prostitution is tolerated. In most cases, the existence of red-light districts has not reduced the volume of street prostitution, the level of nuisance complaints, or the harm to prostitutes.77 Creating tolerance zones for street prostitution implies some official approval. As is true with respect to most vices, official disapproval has at least a marginal deterrent effect. In many jurisdictions, this response is not viable because of legal restrictions or public opposition. Most European countries have found that expanding the zones in which prostitution can occur legally is typically accompanied by an increase in activity outside of the approved zones, as sex businesses try to evade regulation and those women who are not suited for working indoors continue to work on the streets.78 29. Legalizing and decriminalizing prostitution. The two most radical responses to street prostitution are legalization and decriminalization.§ Whatever their merits and drawbacks, neither approach is likely to be politically feasible in the foreseeable future in the United States, United Kingdom, or Canada.§§ 39Responses to the Problem of Street Prostitution § Legalization implies that the government will regulate various aspects of prostitution, just as it regulates other forms of commerce. Decriminalization implies no government regulation. §§ Prostitution itself is not illegal in either the United Kingdom or Canada, as it is in most of the United States, but nearly all forms of soliciting prostitution on the street are illegal, so the net effect is substantially the same—street prostitution is outlawed. Prostitution has been legalized in the Netherlands and recently decriminalized in New Zealand. In Sweden, selling sexual services is legal, but buying them is illegal. Some forms of indoor prostitution have been made legal in Victoria, Australia, but street prostitution remains illegal. The legalization of prostitution in several Nevada counties has not eliminated the problems associated with street prostitution in the cities of Reno and Las Vegas. 43Appendix Response No. Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If… Considerations 1c 22 Intensively enforcing prostitution laws against prostitutes and/or clients for short periods Temporarily removes prostitutes from the streets; deters potential clients from frequenting the area …there is media coverage, and the campaign is followed by changes to the environment where the street prostitution occurs Media coverage can have the opposite effect of promoting prostitution by advertising the location of prostitution strolls; may increase the risk of harm faced by prostitutes by forcing them to work in unfamiliar areas 2 23 Establishing a highly visible police presence Discourages both prostitutes and clients from negotiations …it is followed by changes to the environment where street prostitution occurs Labor-intensive; creates the perception that the area is unsafe 3 24 Relaxing the regulation of indoor prostitution venues Gives street prostitutes some incentive to relocate indoors …street prostitutes are able to work indoors May be perceived as condoning prostitution; indoor venues are of serious concern to police for their role in sexual exploitation of trafficked women 4 24 Enhancing fines/ penalties for prostitution-related offenses committed within specified high-activity zones Displaces the street prostitution market from a particular area …it is followed by changes to the environment where street prostitution occurs Displacement may be to areas where the impact is even worse 5 25 Banning prostitutes or clients from certain areas Reduces the opportunities for prostitutes and clients to solicit and patronize …there is adequate monitoring of bans and good physical descriptions of offenders Requires legal authority; may displace prostitutes to new areas outside the prohibited zone, which, if remote, may prove more hazardous to them 44 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Response No. Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If… Considerations 6 25 Using community justice panels and community service sentences in lieu of incarceration or fines Creates meaningful consequences for prostitutes’ and clients’ offending; consumes prostitutes’ time …there is adequate monitoring of compliance with sentences, and community members are willing to serve on panels Requires monitoring by the court and corrections officials 7 25 Enlisting community members to provide surveillance or to publicly protest against prostitutes or clients Creates the impression that offenders will be constantly monitored and reported; increases the pressure on public officials to address the problem …the community is willing to sustain protests and remain lawful, and police maintain supervision and oversight Risks of overzealousness (vigilantism); displacement to other locations; street patrols require committed leaders to recruit, organize, and mobilize members 8 26 Educating and warning high-risk prostitute and client populations Deters young people from getting into prostitution; discourages potential clients; education programs for arrested clients deter repeat offending …there is evidence of the recruitment of prostitutes from target populations, the messages are carefully tailored to the target audience, and there are adequate resources to run education programs Young people at seriously high risk usually have several critical social problems that require attention if they are to be kept out of prostitution; costs of running programs; adequate deterrence may be achieved by any form of official intervention; schools do not target clients at highest risk of violence 45Appendix Response No. Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If… Considerations Targeting Prostitutes 9 28 Serving restraining orders/civil injunctions against habitual prostitutes Effectively controls and deters the activities of large numbers of prostitutes working in a particular area; conserves police resources by focusing on the most problematic offenders …complainants are willing to file for court orders, and there are small numbers of chronic offenders Labor-intensive and costly to document people and activities; legality varies by jurisdiction 10 29 Mediating conflicts between prostitutes and the community Keeps prostitutes away from the areas of highest citizen complaints, or from engaging in the most offensive behaviors …the community is willing to tolerate some level of street prostitution Difficult to get prostitutes to adhere to agreements 11 30 Imposing curfews on prostitutes Restricts prostitutes’ working hours …there are short periods during which street prostitution is most prevalent Requires a judicial order as a condition of bail or probation; requires monitoring by police or corrections officials 48 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Response No. Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If… Considerations 21 37 Redeveloping the area economy Promotes legitimate activity to displace illegitimate activity …improvements will substantially change the conditions that allow street prostitution to flourish Costly in the short term; potential displacement to more vulnerable areas 22 37 Securing abandoned buildings Keeps prostitutes and clients from having private places for sexual transactions …sexual transactions take place in abandoned buildings Costs of securing buildings; potential displacement to other locations 23 37 Enhancing surveillance with improved lighting and CCTV Improves the area’s appearance; improves natural surveillance to deter prostitution …lighting is inadequate, and sexual transactions take place in dark, secluded places Costs of lighting; may backfire by increasing perceptions of safety and drawing more activity to the area 24 38 Providing trash cans Encourages the proper disposal of hazardous items …they are placed near where sexual transactions occur Must be emptied regularly; police may be accused of condoning prostitution Responses With Limited Effectiveness 25 38 Conducting sweeps Temporarily removes prostitutes and clients from the streets Undermines the criminal justice system and police integrity; the risks of arresting innocent people 26 38 Harassing and intimidating prostitutes Discourages prostitutes from offending Undermines police integrity; geographically displaces the problem 49Appendix Response No. Page No. Response How It Works Works Best If… Considerations 27 38 Suspending or revoking government aid to prostitutes Encourages prostitutes to quit …prostitutes are receiving significant amounts of aid without reporting prostitution income, and aid agencies are willing to take action Implications for dependent children; requires adequate social service follow-up; may have opposite effect of promoting more prostitution to replace lost income 28 39 Establishing formal or informal red- light districts where street prostitution is tolerated Reduces nuisance complaints; increases the police ability to monitor street prostitution and related crime …the community is willing to tolerate some level of street prostitution, and the red-light district can be adequately policed and will not attract additional clients from other communities Legality (ruled unconstitutional in Canada as a local option); the expansion of street prostitution out of the tolerance zones; lack of public support; ineffective in reducing nuisance complaints or harm to prostitutes under some conditions; implies that police condone prostitution 29 39 Legalizing and decriminalizing prostitution Legalization subjects prostitution to administrative regulation Not politically feasible in foreseeable future in the United States, United Kingdom, or Canada Dalla, Zia, and Kennedy (2003); Cusick, Martin, and May (2003); Hester and Westmarland (2004). McIntyre (2002); Dalla, Zia, and Kennedy (2003). Home Office (2004). Golding (1994); Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999); Sampson and Scott (2000). Benson and Matthews (1995); Weidner (2001); Weitzer (1999). Hester and Westmarland (2004); Cleveland Police, Middlesbrough Police District (2000); Penfold et al. (2004). Sanders (2001); Sanders (2004); Kurtz et al. (2004). New Westminster Police Service (2002). Benson and Matthews (1995). Canada Department of Justice Research Section (1989). Getz (1996). Benson and Matthews (2000); Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999). Monto (2004). Weitzer (1999). Sampson and Scott (2000). Matthews (1997); Larsen (1996). www.renewal.net (n.d.); Hughes (2004); Home Office (2006). Sampson and Scott (2000). Weidner (2001). Portland Police Bureau and Campbell Resources Inc. (1991). Spelman (1993); Sampson and Scott (2000). Sampson and Scott (2000). Home Office (2004). Hunter, May, and the Drug Strategy Directorate (2004). Sampson and Scott (2000). Benson and Matthews (1995); Golding (1994). Bindel and Kelly (2003). 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 53Endnotes 55References References American Prosecutors Research Institute (2004). Unwelcome Guests: A Community Prosecution Approach to Street-Level Drug Dealing and Prostitution. Alexandria (Virginia): American Prosecutors Research Institute, National Center for Community Prosecution. Benson, C., and R. Matthews (2000). “Police and Prostitution: Vice Squads in Britain.” In R. Weitzer (ed.), Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry. New York: Routledge. ——— (1995). “Street Prostitution: 10 Facts in Search of a Policy.” International Journal of the Sociology of Law 23(4):395–415. Bindel, J., and L. Kelly (2003). A Critical Examination of Responses to Prostitution in Four Countries: Victoria, Australia; Ireland; the Netherlands; and Sweden. London: London Metropolitan University, Child. and Women Abuse Studies Unit. Brooks-Gordon, B., and L. Gelsthorpe (2003a). “Prostitutes’ Clients, Ken Livingstone, and a New Trojan Horse.” Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 42(5):437–451. ——— (2003b). “What Men Say When Apprehended for Kerb-Crawling: A Model of Prostitutes’ Clients’ Talk.” Psychology, Crime, & Law 9(2):145–171. Buffalo Prostitution Task Force (1999). “Workable Solutions to the Problem of Street Prostitution in Buffalo.” Report. Buffalo (New York): Buffalo Prostitution Task Force. 58 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Getz, R. (1996). “High-Profile Program Successfully Drives Prostitutes Out of Town.” Community Policing Exchange (November/December):6. Golding, R. (1994). “Prostitution in Holland.” Policing 10(1):48–57. Goldstein, H. (1990). Problem-Oriented Policing. New York: McGraw-Hill. ——— (1977). Policing a Free Society. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Ballinger Publishing Co. (Republished in 1990 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin.) Haringey Council (2004). Scrutiny Review of Street Prostitution. London: Haringey Council. Hester, M., and N. Westmarland (2004). Tackling Street Prostitution: Toward a Holistic Approach. Home Office Research Study, No. 279. London: Home Office Research, Development, and Statistics Directorate. Hill, G. (2004). “Comment: The Use of Pre-existing Exclusionary Zones as Probationary Conditions for Prostitution Offenses: A Call for the Sincere Application of Heightened Scrutiny.” Seattle University Law Review 28(1):173–209. Hodgson, J. (1997). Games Pimps Play: A Qualitative Analysis of Street Prostitution. Toronto: Canadian Scholar’s Press. Home Office (2006). A Coordinated Prostitution Strategy and a Summary of Responses to ‘Paying the Price’. London: Home Office. 59Appendix ——— (2004). “Paying the Price: A Consultation Paper on Prostitution.” London: Home Office. Hubbard, P. (1998). “Community Action and the Displacement of Street Prostitution: Evidence From British Cities.” Geoforum 29(3):269–286. Hubbard, P., and T. Sanders (2003). “Making Space for Sex Work: Female Street Prostitution and the Production of Urban Space.” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 27(1):75–89. Hughes, D. (2004). Best Practices To Address the Demand Side of Sex Trafficking. Kingston (Rhode Island): University of Rhode Island, Women’s Studies Program. Hunter, G., T. May, and the Drug Strategy Directorate (2004). Solutions and Strategies: Drug Problems and Street Sex Markets: Guidance for Partnerships and Providers. London: Home Office, Drug Strategy Directorate. Kennedy, M., B. Gorzalka, and J. Yuille (2004). “Men Who Solicit Prostitutes: A Demographic Profile of Participants in the Vancouver Police Department’s Prostitution Offender Program.” Prepared for the Vancouver Police Department and the John Howard Society of the Lower Mainland. Kurtz, S., H. Surratt, J. Inciardi, and M. Kiley (2004). “Sex Work and ‘Date’ Violence.” Violence Against Women 10(4):357–385. Larsen, N. (1996). “The Effect of Different Police Enforcement Policies on the Control of Prostitution. Canadian Public Policy—Analyse de Politiques 22(1):40–55. References 60 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Lowman, J. (1992). “Street Prostitution Control: Some Canadian Reflections on the Finsbury Park Experience.” British Journal of Criminology 32(1):1–17. MacMillan, R. (2005). “Dear John: You’re Online.” Washington Post, June 22. Available at: http://www.washingtonpost. com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/22/ AR2005062200 514.html. Accessed August 21, 2006. Maloney, P., and G. Mobley (2002). Controlling Prostitution: A Multimodality Approach. White Paper. Memphis (Tennessee): Memphis Shelby Crime Commission. Matthews, R. (2005). “Policing Prostitution: Ten Years On.” British Journal of Criminology 45(6):877–895. ——— (1997). “Developing More Effective Strategies for Curbing Prostitution.” In R. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. 2nd ed. Guilderland (New York): Harrow and Heston. ——— (1993). Kerb-Crawling, Prostitution, and Multiagency Policing. Crime Prevention Unit Series, Paper 43. London: Home Office. May, T., M. Edmunds, and M. Hough (1999). Street Business: The Links Between Sex and Drug Markets. Police Research Series, Paper 118. London: Home Office. McIntyre, S. (2002). Strolling Away. Ottawa: Canada Department of Justice, Research and Statistics Division. Melrose, M. (2003). “Street Prostitution and Community Safety: A Case of Contested Meanings?” Community Safety Journal 2(1):21–31. 63Appendix San Diego Police Department and San Diego City Attorney’s Office (2003). “Addressing Quality-of-Life Issues Through the Formation of the Mid-City Neighborhood Prosecution Team.” Submission for the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing. Sanders, T. (2005). Sex Work: A Risky Business. Cullompton (England); Portland (Oregon): Willan. ——— (2004). “The Risks of Street Prostitution: Punters, Police, and Protesters.” Urban Studies 41(9):1703–1717. ——— (2001). “Female Street Sex Workers, Sexual Violence, and Protection Strategies.” Journal of Sexual Aggression 7(1):5–18. Spelman, W. (1993). “Abandoned Buildings: Magnets for Crime?” Journal of Criminal Justice 21(5):481–495. Sterk, C., and K. Elifson (1990). “Drug-Related Violence and Street Prostitution.” In M. De La Rosa, E. Lambert, and B. Gropper (eds.), Drugs and Violence: Causes, Correlates, and Consequences. NIDA Research Monograph 103. Rockville, Md.: U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Surratt, H., J. Inciardi, S. Kurtz, and M. Kiley (2004). “Sex Work and Drug Use in a Subculture of Violence.” Crime & Delinquency 50(1):43–59. Thukral, J., and M. Ditmore (2003). Revolving Door: An Analysis of Street-Based Prostitution in New York City. New York: Urban Justice Center, Sex Workers Project. Van Brunschot, E. (2003). “Community Policing and ‘John Schools’”. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 40(2):215–232. References 64 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition van Gelder, P., and C. Kaplan (1992). “The Finishing Moment: Temporal and Spatial Features of Sexual Interactions Between Streetwalkers and Car Clients.” Human Organization 51(3):253–263. Vancouver Police Department Vice Unit (2002). “D.I.S.C.: A Shared Solution: The Positive Effects of Police Agencies and Communities Working in Partnership To Solve the Problems Inflicted by the Sex Trade.” Submission for the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem- Oriented Policing. Victoria Attorney-General’s Prostitution Advisory Group (2002). Attorney-General’s Street Prostitution Advisory Group: Final Report. Melbourne (Australia): Victoria Department of Justice. Weidner, R. (2001). “‘I Won’t Do Manhattan’”: Causes and Consequences of a Decline in Street Prostitution.” New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC. Weisel, D. (2004). Street Prostitution in Raleigh, N.C. A final report to the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, on the field applications of the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Project. Weitzer, R. (ed.) (2000). Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry. New York: Routledge. Weitzer, R. (1999). “Prostitution Control in America: Rethinking Public Policy.” Crime, Law, & Social Change 32(1):83–102. Williamson, C., and T. Cluse-Tolar (2002). “Pimp-Controlled Prostitution: Still an Integral Part of Street Life.” Violence Against Women 8(9):1074–1092. 65Appendix Wortley, S., and B. Fischer (2002). An Evaluation of the Toronto John School Diversion Program. Toronto: University of Toronto, Center of Criminology. Wortley, S., B. Fischer, and C. Webster (2002). “Vice Lessons: A Survey of Prostitution Offenders Enrolled in the Toronto John School Diversion Program.” Canadian Journal of Criminology 44(4):369–402. www.renewal.net (n.d.). “Prostitution and Kerb-Crawling: Road Management Interventions.”. Accessed June 22, 2006. References 68 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition Kelly Dedel Kelly Dedel is the Director of One in 37 Research, Inc., a criminal justice consulting firm based in Portland, Oregan. As a consultant to federal, state, and local agencies, her research on the juvenile and criminal justice systems takes one of three major forms: 1) developing written tools to enhance practice or inform public policy; 2) conducting investigations of the conditions of confinement in juvenile correctional facilities; and 3) undertaking rigorous evaluations of various juvenile and criminal justice programs to determine their effectiveness. She has provided evaluation-related technical assistance to over 60 jurisdictions across the country for the Bureau of Justice Assistance. In this capacity, Dr. Dedel worked with a broad range of criminal justice programs implemented by police, prosecutors, public defenders, local jails, community corrections, and prisons. Dr. Dedel consults with the Department of Justice as a monitor/investigator of civil rights violations in juvenile correctional facilities, most often in the area of education. Among her other research interests are prisoner reentry, risk assessment and offender classification, and juveniles in adult correctional facilities. Prior to working as a consultant, she was a founder and senior research scientist at The Institute on Crime, Justice and Corrections at The George Washington University, and was a senior research associate at the National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Dr. Dedel received bachelor's degrees in psychology and criminal justice from the University of Richmond and a doctorate in clinical psychology from the Center for Psychological Studies in Berkeley, California. 69Recommended Readings Recommended Readings • A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens and Their Environments, Bureau of Justice Assistance, 1993. This guide offers a practical introduction for police practitioners to two types of surveys that police find useful: surveying public opinion and surveying the physical environment. It provides guidance on whether and how to conduct cost- effective surveys. • Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers, by John E. Eck (U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2001). This guide is a companion to the Problem-Oriented Guides for Police series. It provides basic guidance to measuring and assessing problem-oriented policing efforts. • Conducting Community Surveys, by Deborah Weisel (Bureau of Justice Statistics and Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 1999). This guide, along with accompanying computer software, provides practical, basic pointers for police in conducting community surveys. The document is also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs. • Crime Prevention Studies, edited by Ronald V. Clarke (Criminal Justice Press, 1993, et seq.). This is a series of volumes of applied and theoretical research on reducing opportunities for crime. Many chapters are evaluations of initiatives to reduce specific crime and disorder problems. 70 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition • Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing: The 1999 Herman Goldstein Award Winners. This document produced by the National Institute of Justice in collaboration with the Office of Community Oriented Policing Services and the Police Executive Research Forum provides detailed reports of the best submissions to the annual award program that recognizes exemplary problem- oriented responses to various community problems. A similar publication is available for the award winners from subsequent years. The documents are also available at www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij. • Not Rocket Science? Problem-Solving and Crime Reduction, by Tim Read and Nick Tilley (Home Office Crime Reduction Research Series, 2000). Identifies and describes the factors that make problem-solving effective or ineffective as it is being practiced in police forces in England and Wales. • Opportunity Makes the Thief: Practical Theory for Crime Prevention, by Marcus Felson and Ronald V. Clarke (Home Office Police Research Series, Paper No. 98, 1998). Explains how crime theories such as routine activity theory, rational choice theory and crime pattern theory have practical implications for the police in their efforts to prevent crime. • Problem Analysis in Policing, by Rachel Boba (Police Foundation, 2003). Introduces and defines problem analysis and provides guidance on how problem analysis can be integrated and institutionalized into modern policing practices. 73Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Problem-Specific Guides series: 1. Assaults in and Around Bars, 2nd Edition. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-00-2 2. Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-01-0 3. Speeding in Residential Areas. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-02-9 4. Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes. Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-03-7 5. False Burglar Alarms. Rana Sampson. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-04-5 6. Disorderly Youth in Public Places. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-05-3 7. Loud Car Stereos. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-06-1 8. Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Michael S. Scott. 2001. ISBN: 1-932582-07-X 9. Graffiti. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-08-8 10. Thefts of and From Cars in Parking Facilities. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-09-6 11. Shoplifting. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-10-X 12. Bullying in Schools. Rana Sampson. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-11-8 13. Panhandling. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-12-6 14. Rave Parties. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-13-4 15. Burglary of Retail Establishments. Ronald V. Clarke. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-14-2 16. Clandestine Methamphetamine Labs, 2nd Edition. Michael S. Scott. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-15-0 17. Acquaintance Rape of College Students. Rana Sampson. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-16-9 18. Burglary of Single-Family Houses. Deborah Lamm Weisel. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-17-7 19. Misuse and Abuse of 911. Rana Sampson. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-18-5 20. Financial Crimes Against the Elderly. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-22-3 74 Street Prostitution, 2nd Edition 21. Check and Card Fraud. Graeme R. Newman. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-27-4 22. Stalking. the National Center for Victims of Crime. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-30-4 23. Gun Violence Among Serious Young Offenders. Anthony A. Braga. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-31-2 24. Prescription Fraud. Julie Wartell and Nancy G. La Vigne. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-33-9 25. Identity Theft. Graeme R. Newman. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-35-3 26. Crimes Against Tourists. Ronald W. Glensor and Kenneth J. Peak. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-36-3 27. Underage Drinking. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-39-8 28. Street Racing. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-42-8 29. Cruising. Kenneth J. Peak and Ronald W. Glensor. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-43-6 30. Disorder at Budget Motels. Karin Schmerler. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-41-X 31. Drug Dealing in Open-Air Markets. Alex Harocopos and Mike Hough. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-45-2 32. Bomb Threats in Schools. Graeme R. Newman. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-46-0 33. Illicit Sexual Activity in Public Places. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-47-9 34. Robbery of Taxi Drivers. Martha J. Smith. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-50-9 35. School Vandalism and Break-Ins. Kelly Dedel Johnson. 2005. ISBN: 1-9325802-51-7 36. Drunk Driving. Michael S. Scott, Nina J. Emerson, Louis B. Antonacci, and Joel B. Plant. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-57-6 37. Juvenile Runaways. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1932582-56-8 38. The Exploitation of Trafficked Women. Graeme R. Newman. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-59-2 39. Student Party Riots. Tamara D. Madensen and John E. Eck. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-60-6 75Other Problem-Oriented Guides for Police 40. People with Mental Illness. Gary Cordner. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-63-0 41. Child Pornography on the Internet. Richard Wortley and Stephen Smallbone. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-65-7 42. Witness Intimidation. Kelly Dedel. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-67-3 43. Burglary at Single-Family House Construction Sites. Rachel Boba and Roberto Santos. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-00-2 44. Disorder at Day Laborer Sites. Rob Guerette. 2006. ISBN: 1-932582-72-X Response Guides series: • The Benefits and Consequences of Police Crackdowns. Michael S. Scott. 2003. ISBN: 1-932582-24-X • Closing Streets and Alleys to Reduce Crime: Should You Go Down This Road? Ronald V. Clarke. 2004. ISBN: 1-932582-41-X • Crime Prevention Publicity Campaigns. Emmanuel Barthe. 2006 ISBN: 1-932582-66-5 • Shifting and Sharing Responsibility for Public Safety Problems. Michael S. Scott and Herman Goldstein. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-55-X • Video Surveillance of Public Places. Jerry Ratcliffe. 2006 ISBN: 1-932582-58-4 Problem-Solving Tools series: • Assessing Responses to Problems: An Introductory Guide for Police Problem-Solvers. John E. Eck. 2002. ISBN: 1-932582-19-3 • Researching a Problem. Ronald V. Clarke and Phyllis A. Schultz. 2005. ISBN: 1-932582-48-7