Summary of Virginia Cox, Women’s Writing in Italy 1400-1650, Sintesi del corso di Letteratura Italiana

Scarica Summary of Virginia Cox, Women’s Writing in Italy 1400-1650 e più Sintesi del corso in PDF di Letteratura Italiana solo su Docsity! Virginia Cox, Women’s Writing in Italy 1400-1650 The book delves into women's writing during this period, covering Quattrocento Italy, translation, diffusion, and the Seicento backlash. In the Renaissance, Italian women emerged as writers and artists, challenging gender norms and receiving societal acceptance. Recent studies highlight their significant contributions and acclaim, challenging ideas of female inferiority. While it is important to critique these texts in their historical context, it is also valuable to explore why Renaissance men praised and encouraged female creativity, despite their limited belief in women's equality. Despite some revisionist views, the consensus suggests that the Renaissance didn't substantially improve women's status, as legal, social, and economic factors continued to subordinate them, limiting their choices and opportunities. The Renaissance "defense of women" differed from earlier pro-women arguments and was shaped by its response to a specific historical and scholastic position. Recognizing this distinctiveness is crucial to understand its origins and the emergence of secular women's writing. In Italian contexts, this "feminism" had a beginning and an end.  Between the late 16th and early 17th centuries, there was a noticeable shift in gender attitudes from literary elites. Supportive discourses for women lost cultural centrality while misogynistic discourses, once marginal, gained prominence and there was a decrease in women's creative output, leading to a decline in the specifically Italian Renaissance discourse on women's dignity. The emergence and decline of this discourse coincided with the marginalization of women as writers. In a patriarchal society, women's participation in literary culture was often shaped by elite male attitudes, determining their access and reception in the public literary sphere. Carlo Dionisotti's influential proposal in 1967 viewed women as important in Italian literature only in the mid-1500s due to more books being printed. But this overlooks the relevance that women writers had also from the late 1400s to the early 1600s. Moreover, the perception of female writers being entirely oppositional to the patriarchal culture of their time, assumed by some feminist critics, might overlook Renaissance pro-feminist discourse that potentially influenced women's writing. There's a tendency to believe that any public expression by women in that era was viewed negatively, but this assumes an absolute conflict between female writers and the prevailing culture. In essence, the scholarly framing of women's literary participation has often been constrained by Dionisotti's periodization and an assumption of complete opposition between female writers and patriarchal norms. Humanist discourses on women's achievements evolved during the fifteenth century, influenced by Boccaccio and Petrarch. To understand sixteenth-century women's writing in the vernacular, it is crucial to consider its Latin ancestry from the fifteenth century. Veronica Gambara and Vittoria Colonna, pioneers of sixteenth-century vernacular women's writing, were connected to notable fifteenth-century dynasties of "learned women." During the 1400s in Italy, it was common practice for the ruling families to educate girls to a high standard. Women from ruling dynasties were often encouraged to pursue education, and there is evidence that their intellectual interests continued after marriage. GENRES  In the fifteenth-century Italy, women played a significant role in political literature, particularly through orations and letters. These works were carefully scripted diplomatic performances that utilized the novelty of female oratory to achieve dynastic and political goals. Examples of such works include orations by Battista da Montefeltro and Costanza Varano, as well as letters by Maddalena Scrovegni, Angela Nogarola, and Cassandra Fedele. Despite concerns about women speaking in public, these displays of female eloquence were socially and morally acceptable. Epistolary writing, both formal and informal, was another common genre for women writers, with notable examples including the letter collections of Laura Cereta, Cassandra Fedele, and Isotta Nogarola. This period saw a focus on vernacular literature in Florence and Tuscany, while other towns emphasized classical works. These women showed a strong preference for writing in the vernacular, even though they were educated in Latin. Battista da Montefeltro is unique as she wrote in both Latin and the vernacular. Battista's poetry reflects a shift from secular to religious themes as she entered religious life. CHAPTER 1: ORIGINS The “Learned Lady” in Quattrocento Italy: An Emerging Cultural Type - These women were part of an emerging cultural type: secular, humanistically educated female erudites. They received serious Latin education, attracting praise from contemporary humanists. The women discussed in this period were mainly from the upper strata of society. Noblewomen from ruling dynasties, like Battista da Montefeltro or Ippolita Sforza, were visible icons of female erudition due to their high status and political importance. - At a slightly lower social level, women from leading families of northern Italian cities, such as Angela and Isotta Nogarola in Verona and Maddalena Scrovegni in Padua, corresponded with more modest dynastic families. While these families didn't hold ruling power, they played significant roles before Venice took control in 1405. Education for women in these families was seen as a way to elevate their social status. - Further down the social hierarchy were women like Laura Cereta and Cassandra Fedele, who came from families of lesser rank. Their education stood out as an exception within their social circles. Cereta, the daughter of a lawyer, and Fedele, from a family categorized between patriciate and popolo in Venice, encountered more hostility toward their learning, given their lower social positions. While female scholars from ruling dynasties faced little resistance in pursuing education and often continued their studies post-marriage, those from lower social levels encountered greater hostility. Isotta Nogarola's case is emblematic, as and courtly values, and their presence was necessary for the court to have ornament, splendor, and happiness. Male poets often dedicated their work to female patrons as a way to align themselves with courtliness and the power system. Women were also seen as the ideal audience for vernacular literature, as they were perceived as more adept in matters of emotion and sentiment. Sappho Surfaces: The First Female Vernacular Poets During the late 15th and early 16th centuries, there were several female poets in Italy who gained recognition for their works. Some of these poets include Girolama Corsi, Cecilia Gallerani, Camilla Scarampa, Veronica Gambara, and Maria Savorgnan. The emergence of female poets also led to the creation of a genre of "defense of women", which celebrated women's learning. Male-authored literature testifying to the activity of early female poets with enthusiasm and approbation. Luca Valenziano's poem, "Il Camilcleo," which describes the life of Camilla Scarampa, is an example of this genre. Gasparo Visconti's sonnet highlights the admiration for these female poets and their ability to excel in the art of writing verses. In Girolamo Ruscelli’s 1554 tribute volume to Giovanna d’Aragona, women are depicted as representing a mixture of traditional feminine virtues and more contemporary qualities. These women are seen as embodying the virtues of Giovanna d’Aragona collectively. These works disseminated the theoretical arguments for women's "nobility and excellence" and popularized the historical exempla of exceptional women. The names of historical "women worthies" circulated not only in literary texts but also in visual media such as prints and panel paintings. In addition, names of classical "women worthies" became popular choices for girls' names, reflecting modern ideals of achievement. These writings challenged the long-standing misogynistic tradition and presented female beauty as divine and love as a means of spiritual ascent. The love dialogue and treatise on beauty genres had their roots in early 16th-century vernacular court literature. The period also saw the popularity of encomiastic tribute volumes that praised individual women or groups of women. The “Learned Lady” as Signifier in Humanistic Culture The period of the Renaissance saw a growing fascination with female poets, particularly Sappho. Classical female poets like Sappho became objects of fascination, symbolizing a connection between classical learning and modern times. The reception of Ovid's Heroides in the late fifteenth century also supported the interest in female poets, as it explored women's self-expression in a male-dominated literary tradition. There was even an emergence of a genre of Heroides imitations written by identifiable contemporary court ladies. The female poets of the courtly tradition wrote love poems, some of which were private and not intended for public circulation. This representation served various purposes: it highlighted progress in culture, subtly reflected on male scholarly achievements, and epitomized the humanistic transformation of society. Female scholars, presented as unworldly and contemplative, held a special appeal due to their disinterested pursuit of knowledge, distinct from the professional motives of men in similar positions. Love poems, such as those written by Gambara and Scarampa, were seen as literary exercises and did not jeopardize the reputation of their aristocratic authors. Gambara's early poems explored the theme of love in a stylized and stereotypical manner, while Scarampa's verses were more spirited and reminiscent of later poets like Gaspara Stampa. Girolama Corsi's verse was more thematically varied and stylistically experimental, and her poetry included mourning sonnets, a dialogue, and political sonnets. Concept of complementarily talented noble couples, where the wife's primary task is to immortalize her husband's fame through poetry. Bembo, Petrarchism, and the Reform of Italian Literature BEMBO’S LINGUISTIC SOLUTION  it had practical and symbolic implications in a disunified political scenario, where he made it possible to regularize vernacular literary usage and elevate the volgare to the status of Latin. His theories also had implications for literature, as he prescribed a reformed literature based on a strict imitation of Petrarch. Bembo's codification of the literary volgare made "high" literature attainable for many. The reforms introduced by Bembo in the early sixteenth century had a significant impact on women's involvement in literary culture. These reforms not only made literature more accessible to non-Latin-literate individuals, but also provided a more decorous and dignified model of literature that was more suitable for women. The diffusion of this pro-feminist culture can be traced through changes in literary works, such as Ariosto's "Orlando furioso," which introduced new narrative material condemning misogyny and celebrating women's achievements. Bembo himself included poetic exchanges with female writers, such as Vittoria Colonna and Veronica Gambara, in his work, further highlighting the importance of women in the literary world. Bembo, a prominent figure, engaged with women in poetry and philosophy, exchanging sonnets with Veronica Gambara and involving women in his philosophical discussions. This interaction wasn't just a response to political chaos but had roots in his father's admiration for female poet Ginevra de' Benci and awareness of other notable female writers. While the inclusion of women in literary circles might have protected elite men's masculinity, it's important not to accept this explanation entirely without considering other factors. The turmoil of the Wars of Italy impacted literature, linking femininity and emasculation symbolically. Bembo's suggestion of a two- gendered poetic culture and restoration of Petrarchan norms might have aimed to heal Italy's wounds from political turmoil by rebuilding its cultural and symbolic integrity. “So Dear to Apollo”: Veronica Gambara and Vittoria Colonna after 1530 In the context of Italian women's writing between the 1400s and 1650s, female poets didn't emerge solely due to the Italian Wars but already existed prior to that period. Female poets were praised for their sweetness and purity, while also being acknowledged for their masculine qualities. Vittoria Colonna, for example, was praised for the "weightiness" of her poetry, which is typically associated with masculinity. This contrasts with the feminine quality of piacevolezza or charm. Female poets like Colonna were able to integrate both masculine and feminine elements in their work without compromising their appeal. The literary developments of Vittoria Colonna and Veronica Gambara during the early 1530s were closely connected to the political history of Italy and its relationship with foreign powers. Veronica Gambara wrote political and occasional verse, as well as correspondence sonnets to Pietro Bembo and Colonna, which became influential models for future female poets. The tribute poem "O de la nostra etade unica gloria" from Gambara to Colonna exemplifies the admiration and reverence between these two poets. earlier encountered as part of a group of female poets in Lombardy and Venice. She had her poetic voice transition from a tortured tone to one of serene, reciprocated love during her marriage. Similarly, Vittoria Colonna's early poetry, likely centered on her love for her husband, was initially closer to the poesia cortigiana tradition before evolving into her mature Petrarchan style. Despite Colonna's roots in Naples post-marriage, her influence spread through the circulation of her admirers' works and her intellectual standing, highlighted by dedications and publications. Her writing circulated widely, with a canzoniere published in 1519 serving to diffuse her reputation. Colonna's main theme in her verse was her love for her husband, Francesco Ferrante d'Avalos. Colonna was connected to various religious reformers, such as Juan de Valdés and Bernardino Ochino, and her poetry reflects the themes and language of the Spirituali movement. Colonna's marriage to Ferrante d'Avalos symbolized the harmonized union of Spanish power and Italian aristocracy. Colonna's verse had political and ideological meanings beyond a devoted widow's memorialization of her husband. Colonna's relationship with her husband is discussed, highlighting her intellectual and moral dignity rather than her role as a devoted wife. Colonna's cousin Alfonso d'Avalos added to her prestige. Both Colonna and Gambara gained national fame during their widowhoods, with Colonna focusing on mourning for her dead love. Colonna, especially, focused on mourning her deceased husband, akin to Petrarch's verses for Laura. Both had a significant impact on the literary dynamics of Petrarchism. They were well-educated and connected, and their association with each other helped to enhance their own literary reputations. Two of Veronica Gambara's sonnets poems addressed to Bembo and Colonna became influential models for future female poets. One of these, "O de la nostra etade unica gloria" dedicated to Colonna, praised her as a wise, graceful, and almost divine figure, celebrating her immortality on earth. Unlike male-written tributes to Colonna, this sonnet by Gambara didn't focus on Colonna's marital relationship but hailed her as an intellectual and a morally dignified individual. It presented Colonna in a complex manner, with a mix of feminine and masculine traits, comparing her to Athena and Apollo, symbolizing philosophical and poetic wisdom in both genders. The sonnet's classicizing language evoked the Renaissance revival of antiquity and the elevated status of female poets as representatives of classical heritage. Colonna responded with her own sonnet, "Di novo il Cielo de l’antica gloria," acknowledging Gambara's virtù as evidence of the return of ancient glory. O de la nostra etade unica gloria court system by featuring Siena's female writers within the context of a national feminine elite. Florence lacked a distinguished female poet and sought to appropriate Siena's aristocratic female poets. - Alessandro Piccolomini's lecture on Laodomia Forteguerri's sonnet marks a new and audacious move in the commentary choices of the Accademia degli Infiammati. Piccolomini's choice of a contemporary female poet served as a statement of his avant- garde literary stance and patriotic allegiance to Siena's literary heritage. This lecture symbolized the Infiammati's modern cultural agenda, emphasizing the vernacular within literature, science, and philosophy, thus redefining female authors as mascots of literary modernity. Women Writers and Their Uses: Case Studies  Women's literary contributions during this period served various cultural, societal, and personal agendas beyond their own desires or ambitions.  Women played a significant part in the self-presentation of male writers, especially in vernacular literature. Showing respect and deference to women was a way for male writers to signal their affiliation with aristocratic circles and gain social status.  Educated women were portrayed as symbols of civic cultural excellence. They became pivotal in representing the cultural prowess of their cities or regions, exemplified through their literary contributions and affiliations with academies or local literary movements.  Literary productions, such as collections honoring female poets like Irene di Spilimbergo, were not just tributes but also assertions of regional or city-based literary dominance. These compilations served to demonstrate the centrality of certain regions within the national literary conversation. Literary Trajectories: Continuity and Change The period between the 1540s and 1560s saw a notable formal innovation in women's writing known as the "choral anthology," visible in works by Tullia d’Aragona, Laura Terracina, and Laura Battiferra. This form centered on dialogic interactions, collecting a poet's work along with verses addressed to her, illustrating her place within a male-dominated social network. The structure emphasized the poet's talent and connections while highlighting the poetic suitors' validation and competition within their circle. These anthologies ranged from courtly to more matronly in tone, reflecting variations in the relationships established between the principal poet and her admirers. Gaspara Stampa's posthumous collection, published by her sister, possibly contained the nucleus of another choral anthology, hinted at by its section break and encomiastic poems. Stampa's collection included sequences of love poetry, encomiastic verses, and religious penitence. Women's literary production in this era continued to predominantly feature lyric verse, especially in the themes of erotic, occasional-epistolary, and religious poetry. PETRARCHISM  Petrarch's influence remained dominant, though Laura Battiferra displayed influences from later poets like Della Casa, experimenting with newer metrical forms. Laura Terracina's poetry, primarily in ottava rima stanza forms, diverged significantly from Petrarchan norms, influenced by the Neapolitan tradition of trasmutazione. Gaspara Stampa's deviation from Petrarchism was more thematic and stylistic, portraying unconventional narratives and using a colloquial tone that contrasted with classic Petrarchism, potentially drawing influence from Ovid and Boccaccio's ventriloquized female voices. Gaspara Stampa's unconventional narrative content and colloquial tone diverged from classic Petrarchism, drawing thematic parallels with Ovid's Heroides and Boccaccio's works. Laura Battiferra's choral anthology "Primo libro delle opere toscane" of 1560 gathers both the work of a poet and correspondence verse addressed to her and emphasizes intellectual admiration over erotic desire. Laura Terracina's early debt as a poet is to the Neapolitan tradition of the glosa or trasmutazione, which enjoyed popularity in Italy in the 1540s. Her first published poems were trasmutazioni (an originally Hispanic form that enjoyed a remarkable vogue in Italy from the 1540s, which consisted of a short ottava rima poem incorporating lines from a source text, most usually, in this period, Petrarch’s Rime or Ariosto’s Orlando furioso). Gaspara Stampa's verse deviated from classic Petrarchism thematically and stylistically, drawing inspiration from Ovid's Heroides and Boccaccio's romances. Stampa's verse also had ties to the poligrafi tradition in Venice. Stampa was more celebrated as a musical virtuosa than as a poet. Ultimately, her verse was distinct within female- authored lyric poetry of the time. During this era, numerous noteworthy female writers explored diverse literary genres. Some delved into moral and political themes, drawing inspiration from prior works, while others tackled traditionally "masculine" subjects to engage male-dominated audiences. Epistolary writing continued to see female contributions, yet no single-authored collection of letters by a woman was published during this period. Notably, female narrative writers emerged, presenting historical poems and chivalric romances. Poets also mimicked the styles and voices of prominent female authors. In the mid-sixteenth century, there was a growing exchange of poetic compliments among women in Italy. This exchange served to reinforce women's presence in literary culture and challenge the prevailing rhetoric that minimized women's poetic achievements. Women like Laura Terracina and Laura Battiferra received praise from other women in their poetry. The practice of women dedicating their works to female patrons became more common in the later part of the century. In Florence, Eleonora, Duchess of Toledo, stood out as an exceptional patron who supported female poets like Tullia d'Aragona and Laura Battiferra. Eleonora's cultural astuteness and familial connections to literary figures may have contributed to her support of female writers. During the 1540s and 1550s in Italy, women's poetry began to receive academic commentary, and some women were even invited to join academies. However, despite this progress, women's position within literary culture remained marginal, with their work often trivialized and not taken seriously. Women were predominantly measured against other women, and engaged criticism of their work was lacking. CHAPTER 4: INTERMEZZO In the mid-sixteenth century, women writers in Italy, such as Giulia Bigolina and Chiara Matraini, faced challenges in gaining recognition for their works. While some women writers, like Bigolina, experimented with narrative forms and expressed feminist perspectives, their works were often not published or were lost over time. Compared to the earlier decades, there was a decline in the number of published works by women in the 1560s and 1570s. LATE 1580s  decline in the representation of women in Italian literature. Single-authored volumes and poetic anthologies from that period featured fewer women compared to the previous decades. This exclusion of women's writing can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, there was a decline in vernacular literature as censorship became stricter, resulting in a focus on religious works. Secondly, there was a shift in Italian literary culture towards a more austere and erudite model, moving away from fictional and poetic vernacular writings. However, it is important to note that some women continued to write during this period, although their works may not have been published. The exact extent of women's participation in writing during this time is unknown, as some manuscripts have been lost. These factors, along with the changing literary climate, contributed to the marginalization of women writers in Italy during the 1560s and 1570s. CHAPTER 5: AFFIRMATION Women’s Writing in the Age of the Counter-Reformation By the mid-1560s, women's place within the literary culture of Italy seemed to be well- established, with several prominent female writers. However, their rise to prominence had occurred within the context of the Petrarchan tradition, which was starting to decline. The impact of neoclassical theory on literary practice was felt during the Counter-Reformation period in Italy. The re-aristocratization of literature led to a decrease in social outsiders participating in literature. Women writers faced challenges due to the academic direction that culture took in the 1560s. They were excluded from university education and limited in their literacy, making it difficult for them to engage in literary debates. Their participation was further marginalized by the emphasis on decorum and gender roles. However, women began publishing again in significant numbers from around 1580 onwards. Despite their marginalization, women writers had made considerable achievements in the first six decades of the 16th century. They had attained a place as a vocal minority in literary culture, with notable authors such as Vittoria Colonna and Veronica Gambara. The Counter-Reformation actually enabled women writers to explore a broader range of genres, from previous praise or indifference toward women writers. Sarrocchi's case highlighted a shift in male attitudes toward women's writing. Her experiences signaled a changing landscape, with rising literary misogyny and the breakdown of established gallantry conventions by the late 1590s. Her episode in "Scanderbeide" became symbolic of this broader shift in Italian literary culture. CHAPTER 6: BACKLASH The Rebirth of Misogyny in Seicento Italy Female excellence in the late sixteenth century is defined not only by chastity and good governance but also by intellectual pursuits. Educated conversation, poetry, and musical skills are seen as necessary virtues for noblewomen seeking honor. Male writers complement this vision by hailing talented women as the principal ornament of the city and appreciating their eloquence and talent. Female creativity is celebrated in poetry, with various subgenres emerging to highlight different forms of virtuosity. Muzio Manfredi stands out as a promoter of female talent, dedicating several volumes of poetry to the praise of women. He dedicated numerous volumes of poetry, mainly madrigals, to praising women's excellence. His works like "Per donne romane," "Cento donne cantate," and others, laud women's virtues and beauty. Manfredi engaged in an admiring and flirtatious dialogue with aristocratic women and virtuous ladies, showcasing his admiration in poetry and letters. He even dedicated a volume to celebrating his wife, Ippolita Benigni Manfredi, who was also recognized as a poet. Their collaboration as a married couple in literature was a unique phenomenon of the time. The dominance of Venice, a powerful city-state in the region, in producing female writers was limited due to its social traditions that kept patrician women confined to domestic roles. However, Venice eventually saw the emergence of respected female writers like Moderata Fonte and Lucrezia Marinella. In the later part of the 16th century, there was a decline in the South as an important center for women's writing, whereas Tuscany continued to be recognized as a significant hub for women's literary production. In this period of female writers' authorial self-presentation, there is an increasing assertiveness in their works. A notable change is seen in women's dedicatory practices, with a shift from male intermediaries presenting the works to women authors presenting them themselves. In the earlier period, only a few works are dedicated by the author herself, while in the later period, the majority of works are presented by the author. The societal acceptance of typographical culture and a move away from aristocratic prejudices against print may have contributed to this shift. Another development is the increasing tendency of women writers to address their works to female dedicatees in the later period, indicating a greater comfort and professionalism in assuming an authorial role. MISOGYNISTIC ‘’SHIFT’’  shift in Italian elite literary culture during this period, as shown by the works of other writers like Tasso, who showed support for women in some instances, but also advocated for women's subordinate role in society, primarily focused on obeying their husbands and fulfilling domestic duties. Tasso's treatise on women's virtues begins by emphasizing the importance of temperance in women, particularly when it comes to sexual continence. However, two-thirds of the way through the treatise, Tasso introduces a distinction between "virtù femminile" and a new concept called "donnesca virtù’’: applies to women of noble families who are seen as being outside of civil society and are meant to govern rather than obey. These women are praised for their political wisdom and intellectual acuity. Tasso's treatise provides a nuanced analysis of gender roles in society, highlighting the class-based differences in defining female virtue. The treatise also suggests that "heroic women" should not be judged by the same standards as normal females, challenging traditional notions of modesty and chastity. Tasso's Discorso proposes a return to the traditional role of women in literature, limiting their pursuit of excellence to court ladies. Lucrezia Marinella dismisses Tasso's proposal, arguing that women should be able to pursue glory and intellectual activity. The weak point of Renaissance women's writing was the claim that learning and fame could be pursued without compromising a woman's moral status. The resurgence of opposition to women's education in the seventeenth century was driven by concerns about women's chastity. Muzio Manfredi's play Semiramis portrays the queen as a tyrant, emphasizing the horrors of her incestuous lust and abuse of power. The play reflects a misogynistic view of female rule as a perversion of the natural order. This Giuseppe Passi's extensive treatise, "Donneschi difetti" focused on women's vices. This work sparked heated debates, particularly due to the response it triggered, notably from Lucrezia Marinella through her work "La nobiltà et l’eccellenza delle donne." Marinella's text was a direct rebuttal to Passi's criticisms, offering a meticulous counterargument by highlighting women's virtues and discussing men's defects. Women’s Writing in Seicento Italy: Decline and Fall Misogynistic sentiment began to gain social acceptability, especially when framed as moralism or moral satire. This shift occurred within the context of the emergence of the baroque literary movement, characterized by rupture and renewal. BAROQUE  The baroque aesthetic emphasized artifice, theatricality, and extravagant rhetorical ornamentation. As the baroque gained ascendancy, women were virtually ejected from Italian literary culture. This development was a result of the transgressive nature of the baroque movement, which found women as a target for opposition due to the privileged position they held in Renaissance Petrarchism. The baroque literary style of the time was less conducive to female writers, who were expected to maintain a decorous and respectable public persona. However, actress-singer Margherita Costa was able to embrace the flamboyant and eccentric style of the baroque due to her unique position. However, not all literature during this time embraced these themes, as there were conservative resistance movements that maintained more positive attitudes towards women. Overall, the baroque period was characterized by a tension between the exploration of sensual themes and the enduring influence of traditional ideals. Francesco Pona's "La galeria delle donne celebri" highlighted women's sexuality and moral flaws. Other misogynistic works of the time included writings by Ferrante Pallavicino, Angelico Aprosio, and Bonaventura Tondi. These authors were associated with the libertine Accademia degli Incogniti, which celebrated male sexuality while having a more complex response to female sexuality. The decline of Italian secular courts in the 16th and 17th centuries led to a decline in the importance of elite women as an audience for literature. The exception to this was Florence in the 1620s, when two powerful female regents governed the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries in Florence, the presence of prestigious women as consorts encouraged the production of literature and art celebrating women. Treatises in praise of women were published, grand duchesses were portrayed in paintings, and powerful women were featured in dramatic spectacles. Female creative virtu was also cultivated, with notable female composers and writers dedicating works to influential women. This period witnessed women losing their privileged position as the primary audience for refined literature, which had been foundational during the Renaissance. An example symbolizing this transition was the poetic collection "Tempio," published in 1600 by Giulio Segni, dedicated to Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini. While this anthology involved contributions from notable female poets like Isabella Andreini, Francesca Turina, Febronia Pannolini, Tarquinia Molza, and Maddalena Salvetti, the fact that it was dedicated to a male figure signaled a notable departure from earlier trends. The shift in the audience of vernacular literature, and its focus on male readers allowed writers to explore more explicit and controversial topics in their works. The decline of court women's prominence can also be attributed to factors such as the changing role of women in society and the increasing power of absolutist princely regimes. The influence of the Counter-Reformation church also played a role in shaping gender attitudes, with its emphasis on controlling female sexuality and reinforcing traditional gender roles. Ecclesiastical censorship was likely not the main factor in suppressing pro-feminist discourse in the 17th century. Authors like Bronzini and Della Chiesa who wrote in defense of women were not heavily censored, possibly due to the support of powerful women. The decline in the genre of "defenses of women" was more likely due to a lack of patronage incentives and social pressure. Misogyny in the 17th century came from various ideological perspectives, including the church and secular intellectuals. Misogynistic attitudes were often influenced by religious and philosophical beliefs, but not solely by the Counter-Reformation. There were examples of positive depictions of women in the Christian tradition, and the gender profile of Italian Counter- Reformation culture could have been different in an alternative political scenario.