"The Great Power and the European State System 1814-1914" Book summary for IRGA, History of Int'l Relations semester 1, Appunti di Storia Delle Relazioni Internazionali

Scarica "The Great Power and the European State System 1814-1914" Book summary for IRGA, History of Int'l Relations semester 1 e più Appunti in PDF di Storia Delle Relazioni Internazionali solo su Docsity! History of International Relations Prof Massimo de Leonardis International Relations and Global Affairs at Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano Academic Year: 2018/19 Book: The Great Power and the European State System 1814-1914 (II edition, Bridge and Bullen) All chapter summaries and notes by Francesca Sardi The Reconstruction of Europe and the Alliance, 1812-23 The Peace Settlement of 1814-15 BACKGROUND • The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars between Napoleonic France and shifting alliances of other European powers that produced a brief French hegemony over most of Europe. Along with the French Revolutionary wars, the Napoleonic Wars comprised a 23-year period of recurrent conflict that concluded only with the Battle of Waterloo and Napoleon’s second abdication on June 22, 1815. • The Congress of Vienna settled the European system following Napoleon’s actions across the whole European continent • The Congress ended with the Final Act which included all the previous treaties signed that mainly designated territories but addressed a broad range of issues too like diplomatic precedence and free navigation of int’l rivers • The Treaty of Chaumont was signed in 1814 by the “Great Powers” as it: • Laid the foundation for Victory • Stated the terms of peace • Stated the structure of Europe Post War THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (Oct 1814 – June 1815) • The Congress of Vienna, hosted by Metternich, had the purpose of redrawing the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars with the exception of the territories already established by the treaty of France • The main protagonists were the Great Powers: UK, France, Austria, Russia and Prussia. • France was invited to participate –> This was a way in which the other states could ensure France wouldn’t challenge them • Essentially the decisions were made by a cabinet of four. • Spain, Sweden and Portugal were no longer considered important powers Participants A. Prince Von Metternich: • The Foreign Minister of Austria, a conservative leader • Austria was a unique state, it was rather a multinational empire made up of Germans, Italians, Austrians, Romanians and Bulgarians • Austria had nothing else to ask other than to keep her territories B. Viscount Castlereagh • Representative of Britain • Played a fundamental role as Britain had played an important part in defeating Napoleon • Britain can be considered the power that ‘never gave up’ against France • An example would be the Trafalgar Battle • Castlereagh had a detached attitude due to Britain’s Geographical position • The UK had no specific interest in Europe but was more interested in having a balance than forming a bond with Europe C. Tsar Alexander I • proposed the formation of the Holy Alliance • Had specific interests & aims to expand D. Prince von Hardenberg, represented Prussia E. Talleyrand, represented the reconstituted monarchy of Bourbon France Redrawing the map of Europe • Reasons 1. The Balance of Power: balancing the powers would limit the power of the states to dominate each other 2. The Principle of Legitimacy: meant to be able to return the Monarchs to power in countries in which Napoleon drove them out (the Bonaparte French Empire was abolished) 3. The Containment of France: specific application of the balance of powers and aimed to encourage strong states to help contain France • 35 states and 4 independent cities were formed *At the time there existed a German Confederation with regions from AT and PR, while *Italy had two kingdoms and papal states OUTCOME • The results were that the French returned territories gained by Napoleon, he controlled: • CH, Italy, Belgium, NL, Spain, Poland, Croatia, Slovenia, etc. • At the end of the CoV 2 alliances were signed/formed: 1. The Holy Alliance 2. Quadruple Alliance • These 2 alliances defined the principle of intervention (thus ensuring that in the case of a revolution the leading powers had the right to send armies in order to restore the legitimate monarchs to power) • The 2 newly formed alliances are also collectively known as “The Collective Security System” • Soon, the settlements established by the CoV were challenged from 2 perspectives 1. Internal challenges 1.a.Occurred in the geographical area of the Congress (western and central Europe) 1 • Any internal change in the Ottoman domains caused tension among the European powers, each of which feared that one of the others might increase its own influence • Power had shifted to dissatisfied powers: Russia and France Greece in 1820 • Greece was a hotspot of tension in the ottoman empire, beginning in 1814 the greeks began to rebel to establish heir independent kingdom • In Metternich’s pov, Greece was a destabilizing element and could have been the trigger of international revolutionary movements • At the Congress of Laibach, Metternich emphasized how Russia might be drawn to clash with her allies and embark on a forward policy with France –> this would have challenged the Anglo-Austrian control of the states system. • The British has fair strategic and commercial reasons for opposing any Russian attempt to dominate the Sultan or the Shah since both covered terriroty on the British land route to India from the Mediterranean • France too had interests in helping the Ottoman Empire, especially for the interests of the welfare of the Catholics of Lebanon • At the Congress of Laibach, it was repeated that the monarchs would give no support to the Greek rebels, who were acting contrary to the principles enunciated at Troppau. • Meanwhile, Russia asked London and Vienna for a mandate of action so to aid the Greeks who were poorly treated by the Turks. Castlereagh and Metternich denied such action reminding the Tsar that any military action should have been against the rebels not the Ottomans (Ottomans being the legitimate rulers) • The Greek rebellions and uprising lasted many years until the Treaty of London was signed in 1827 by UK, FR, RU. The three main European powers finally intervene in the conflict (that began in 1821) on the side of the Greeks, and included the possibility of direct diplomatic relation and blocking Egyptians army • The Treaty of London was advantageous to Russia who wanted to protect the Greeks (Greeks looked to Russia as Orthodox protector), to UK who did not want Russia alone to solve the issue and France too was interested after her prestige proved their military actions on an int'l scene were successful and wanted further success with Russia • Battle of Navarino, 1827: Allied forces from Britain, France, and Russia decisively defeated Ottoman and Egyptian forces trying to suppress the Greek war of independence, thereby making much more likely the independence of Greece • Later the London Protocol of 1832 granted Greece its independence and suited the interests of the three powers that helped Greece gained independence (UK, France and Russia) by having them assign the borders of the new state • May 1832, Palmerston convened with French and Russian diplomats, and, without consultation of the Greeks, decided that Greece should be a monarchy. • King of Bavaria made Greece a kingdom –> success of British foreign policy because it showed that Greece did not fall under the influence of Russia but under UK CONGRESS OF VERONA Oct. 20–Dec. 14, 1822 • At the Congress of Verona the Eastern Question was dealt with by Metternich and Strangford (UK), both of whom persuaded Alexander I to settle for a diplomatic action by the alliance to bring the Turks to treat the Greeks more humanely and to withdraw forces from the municipalities. • At the Congress of Verona Wellington (rep of UK) had three aims • Restrain Russia in the Eastern Question • Prevent the alliance from jeopardizing british trading interests by badly intervening in Spain and its South American colonies • Dissociate UK from any proposals for active intervention by or in the name of the alliance in Spain itself. Spain • At the Congress the situation of Spain, where a civil war was beginning and the king appealed to French military assistance against the extremists, was discussed. • French proposed an intervention in Spain, in which Wellington's instructions were to express the uncompromising opposition of the United Kingdom to the whole principle of intervention • The British, however, by threatening the use of their sea power, prevented the allies from interfering with the revolts occurring in Spanish America. • Metternich pushed that the allies would denounce the events in Spain and break off relations with Madrid • Russia and France took this step as the first step towards military actions instead • In April 1823 the French crossed the Pyrenees and overthrew the revolutionary regime in Madrid and re-established the absolute monarch *this was the first time since the CoV (1815) that France breached the system established and acted independently beyond its borders *this marked the end of the Anglo-Austrian domination of the alliance too since the British were not willing to participate in Metternich’s diplomatic demonstration 1 “Every Nation for itself” 1823–30 Canning, Metternich and the control of the European states system OUTCOMES OF THE CONGRESS OF VERONA • The aftermath of the Congress is that the Quadruple Alliance system that had serve since 1815 to contain France and control Russia broke down completely. • The end of the Quadruple Alliance and the strong coordination of UK and AT revealed that the powers alone could not attain the objectives of containing France and grouping Russia –> these two powers were now free and seemed to have seized control of the European state system RUSSIA • Metternich alone was trying to hold Alexander to a conservative course regarding the developments in the Near East • Nicholas (successor of Alexander) disagreed with Metternich and dealt with the Balkans in his own way – supported by the UK and FR • This revealed the issues RU and AT had over the Near East • The Italians were favourable to Russia’s actions given their support against Metternich’s moves towards a federal organization of Italy, exposed at the Congress of Verona. Iberian issues and South America ON PORTUGAL • The UK, led by Canning adopted an even mover isolationist and liberal stand –> despite the breaking of the Quadruple Alliance they were able to keep the ties with Russia and France and acted on their spheres on influences gained by naval power • In Portuguese revolts in 1823 Canning rejected Metternich’s appeal to call for a congress ON SOUTH AMERICA • Inspired by the French revolution and taking ideas from the US independence, south American colonies rebelled against Spain and Portugal • Spain could have prevailed if it wasn’t for the civil war going on within it • Spanish America was of interest to the British for the large trade affairs it enjoyed after concluding agreements with Spain about it • In the 1820s when the latin American countries continued to strive for independence, the French wanted to mediate in the situation and enhance their influence both in Spain and Spanish America by resolving the confluct on a monarchical basis acceptable to Madrid and the colonists. France found support from Russia which had no particular interest if not that of breaking the UK-AT line within the Quadruple Alliance • Castlereagh’s interest in South America slightly deteriorate his with Spain, especially after agreements on transatlantic trade and the recognition of belligerent independent states in South America. • America too was interested in South America and was slowly expanding south (bought Florida from Spain in 1819) From Revolution to War 1830–56 The Revolutions of 1830 CONTEXT • The Neo Holy Alliance had survived because Nicholas had been careful in the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), which gave Russia few gains of territory in Europe and more important ones in Asia (Georgia, eastern Armenia) but was a disaster Metternich. Still Austrians and Prussians remained alive to the need for Russian support against France and the revolution in Europe • In 1832 UK became an even more liberal power, as the Whigs were elcted to government and Palmerston (British foreign minister) intended to defend the liberal ideas and institutions • Palmerston was in an ambiguous position in the 1840s because he was separated from his three allies of the Quadruple Alliance by a clash of interest with Russia in the Near East, but still linked to France for the ideologies shared. FRANCE • While the reinstated Bourbon family was ruling France (last was Charles X), France had been a conservative power and had aligned with Prussia, Austria and Russia • However, the revolution of July 1830 created a constitutional monarchy led by Louis Philip I of the D’Orlean dynasty. This meant that France had become a member of the liberals and aligned with UK, and it too supported the principle of non-intervention • As a consequence, the emperor of Russia did not want to recognize the revolution & was in favour of an intervention • However, Metternich was not in favour of this & advised that nothing should be done • The new monarchy was quickly recognized by UK and AT but not so quickly by RU Poland • At the end of the century, Poland had been divided into 3 parts (each owned by Austria, Prussia & Russia) • Poland had asked France for assistance but France replied “the blood of the French belonged to the French” (thus France was not prepared to start a revolution to support the freedom of others) • Poland was thus left to itself & the Russians crushed the Revolution • Nonetheless, Poland had the French and UK sympathy but both could do little and Russia ruled OTHER PLACES Belgium • Another instance of revolutions occurred in Belgium against its neighbour, the NL which spoke a different language and had diff religious views. After Belgium became independent and some state seceded from the NL it was a constitutional monarchy. 1 • The London Conference of Nov 1830 had the five powers agree that BEL should form an independent state –> also to keep France within the borders of 1815, NL’s borders were those of 1790 instead. • In 1838, an international Treaty was signed stating that Belgium should be perpetually neutral. • The final settlement to the Treaty of London was signed by all in April 1839. (However, in the Summer of 1914, the Neutrality of Belgium was violated by Germany) Italy • In Italy, small revolutions had been taking place (particularly in the Papal States) beginning in 1831. France had sent her fleet to Ancona, whereas Austria sent her troops to Ferrara, thus there was temporary occupation OUTCOME • The outcomes of these revolutions in 1830 resulted in the alignment of 2 different powers: • Liberal Powers (consisting of France & the UK) • The Conservative Powers (consisting of Russia, Prussia & Austria) Holy Alliance and Entente Cordiale, 1833-48 EGYPTIAN CRISIS See page 8 and 9 ENTENTE CORDIALE • By the end of 1843 Aberdeen (UK) and Guizot (FR) spoke of an entente cordiale between the two states • It was a fragile instrument, which failed as soon as 1844 when the powers clashed over Morocco • UK and RU feared the growth of French naval power in the Mediterranean • UK and RU settled their differences by the Straits Convention of 1841 The Revolutions of 1848 OVERVIEW • 1848 was the greatest challenge to the Vienna system • A clash of liberalist/nationality vs tradition/legitimacy • Main events are • the Italian First Independence War 1848-1849 • Began Sicily, 12 January 1848, was a revolution became a real intl issue when it broke out in France • Lamartine’s denunciation of the 1815 treaties • 25-27 Feb. 1848: King Louis D'orlean was forced to abdicate –> new republic DYNAMICS OF THE 1848 REVOLUTION Phase I: victory of revolutionary front (Jan 1848 to summer 1848) • 13/03/1848: riot breaks out in Vienna • 14/03/1848: riots break out in Budapest, Prague, Poland, Croatia and Slovenia • Vienna asked for reforms and liberal constitution • Hungary and Slavs asked for reforms, constitution and autonomy from Vienna • Metternich, symbol of conservatives and Vienna system was forced to resign • Resulted in the Empire was politically and military paralyzed • 13/03/1848: riots break out in Prussia and other German states • Kings were forced to give constitution, with parliaments and elected representatives • The federal diet of the German confederation (1815) was abolished • Asked for a German unification and civil, political and social rights –> a united and liberal Germany. • Italy's independent states (revolution is moderate) • 29/01 King of two sicilies granted a constitution • 17/02 grand duke of Tuscany granted a constitution • 04/03 King of Sardinia, Charles Albert of Savoia grants a constitution (Statuto Albertino) • 14/03 Pope Pius IX granted a constitution • Italy under the Austrian rule • 17/03 a riot breaks out in Venice since constitution wasn't granted and declared the republic of san Marco • 18-22/03 a riot breaks out in Milan (five-days) • Marshall Radetzky forced to retreat • Milaneses ask King Charles Albert for help • 22/03 piedmont declared war to Austria for the unification of Italy under the same kingdom • Even troops from Tuscany, papal states and Naples fought against Austria --> first Italian independence war, greatest international crisis of 1848 • UK needs strong Austria counterbalance Russia and France • London wanted a strong reformed Austria • After Italian declaration of war to Austria • UK feared French attack in Italy (with excusing of helping the Italians) • Uk fears Russian attack to the ottoman empire • Lord Palmerston (UK minister of Foreign affairs) made double moves • Mediation plan in Italy • Asked French diplomatic support to this move, to engage France –> France accepted • British propose Austria to give up lombary-venetia to piedmont so to focus military efforts in Hungary, since Hungary is a projection to the Balkans for Russia. Phase II: reorganization of reactionaries and frictions within the forty- eighters (summer '48 to Dec '48) • Forty eighters can be divided in three groups by their social class, political aims and compromise attitude 1 • Also has to break axis between Austria and Russia • France is no more a monarchy but a republic, there is emperor napoleon iii • France continues with its influence over Italy in two ways • Liberalist tracks • Conservative • UK now cannot count on France anymore, or Austria • Have to rearrange the system from inside by creating new settlement in Italy in case there's a need a need of a strong Italian kingdom to counter balance France. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN 1830 & 1848 • During the 2nd restoration of Europe (which can be considered a return to the original Europe) • The Geopolitical Map of Europe was unchanged, but there were 4 main difference between the 1st & 2nd Restoration 1. The 1st difference is in France: A. In 1815, there was a conservative monarchy which wanted to maintain the rule of law & the order of Europe B. Then, in 1849, there was a 2nd republic which became the 2nd empire, the future emperor was the nephew of Napoleon I & his aim in foreign policy was to overthrow the international order (thus this is why France was a factor of the revolution) 2. The 2nd Difference is in the UK: A. In 1815, there was a long period of conservative authority • Lord Castlereagh (Britain’s foreign minister) was in agreement with Metternich (Austria’s foreign minister) to try preserve the balance of powers B. In 1849, there was a long period of Liberalism because the Tori Party (the conservatives) had split thus it resulted in a period of authority for the Whigs (liberals) • During this period, Lord Palmerston (UK’s Prime Minister) played a key role in Foreign policy as he believed that Britain should foster the process of constitutionalism & liberalism 3. The 3rd Difference is in the German Confederation: A. 1815 was too early to talk about an open confrontation between Prussia & Austria B. 1849, there was rivalry between Prussia & Austria which needed to be dealt with 4. The 4th Difference is in Italy: A. In 1815, all the states were absolute monarchies B. In 1849, the Kingdom (with Fernando II) after being defeated by Austria, decided to adopt a constitution, known as the “Statuto” • The Kingdom of Sardinia became the rallying point for liberals for the unification (thus even in Italy there was a sort of ideological change) *The Kingdom of Sardinia became the rallying point for liberals for the unification (thus even in Italy there was a sort of ideological change) *The Ottoman Empire consisted of: Turkey, Balkan States, Saudi Arabia, Northern States of Africa (including Algeria & not Morocco) GERMAN FIRST ATTEMPT OF UNIFICATION • The 1848 revolutions were carried until late 1849 in Germany, with a conflict between AT, PR and Parliament, and the Middle States • The Prussians put forth a plan of a small Germany from which AT would be excluded but still under the control of Berlin • In March 1849, the Frankfurt Parliament offered the title of Kaiser (Emperor) to the Prussian king Frederick William IV the next month. He replied saying that he could not accept a crown without the consent of the actual states, by which he meant the princes. he feared opposition from the other German princes and military intervention from Austria or Russia. (He also held a fundamentally disagreed of accepting a crown from a popularly elected parliament) The Crimean War and the end of the Holy Alliance 16 October 1853 – 30 March 1856 OVERVIEW • Saw the struggle between Russia & France over the protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire • A deeper reason of the war may be found within the idea that the Russian Tsar wanted to decide the faith of the Ottoman Empire • What is important in the Crimean War (1854-1856)is the diplomatic context of the War & not the military events • Marked the separation between Austria & Russia • Consisted of a coalition of the UK, France & The Ottoman Empire vs Russia • Ottoman Gov. handed over the keys to the Holy Place Role of France • Napoleon III took interest in the Near Easter Question for equality with Great Britain and Russia • he sought to isolate and challenge Russia whom he regarded as the main obstacle to the recovery of France • Reasons for Napoleon III to attack Russia • Nicholas I was extremely hostile towards France and the new imperial regime • Napoleon III assumed Russians attempted to revive the holy alliance with a unity of purpose, giving the Christian orthodox church more power and importance Prussia • was not interested in the Eastern Question • Russian Emperor thought that Prussia had always followed the lead of Russia in the tradition of the conservative alliance • The emperor thought that Austria would have sided with Russia 1 • The Emperor thought that only the Great Power that needed an agreement was Britain Russia's perspective • Nicholas I, emperor of Russia, aim was to strengthen forces of order by a serious blow to French prestige • Wanted to humiliate France and show that turkey feared Russia more than France, and would have to concede more to Russia than to France • Feb-May 1853: Menshikov mission to Constantinople • Nicholas tried to reassure brits and Austrians that he would respect their interest in the near eastern question • Mission failed • July 1853: Russia occupied two Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia, and declared they would withdraw only if the Turks conceded the demands which the Menshikov had made. The brits and Austria were alarmed by this foreign policy action. • The Austria saw the occupation of the principalities would give the Russians control of the lower Danube river (vital trade route of the Hapsburg empire) and exposed all eastern and south-eastern frontier of the monarchy to Russian military forces • British interpreted as a move of determination to pursue a forward policy in the near east • Following, both UK and Austria wanted a settlement which would enable the Russian to withdraw without damage to their prestige and by which turkey would concede something to Russia affecting her independence *there was a fundamental difference between this crisis of 1853 and that of 1840. the first crisis was provoked by Egypt, the second by two French and Russians (two great powers) • The British and French turned to naval action to demonstrate their determination to defend Turkey • Sept 1853: French and brit navy through Dardanelles • By opposing the Russians, the British could not escape cooperation with France UK • Contrary to expectations, the British Gov. was not ready to accept the Ottoman Empire as the enemy • London was not willing to make a deal with the Russian Emperor so a war broke out • The first action of the war was to invade the principalities of Moldavia & Wallachia (part of Romania) The war • 4th oct 1853: turkey declares war on Russian empire • UK wanted to protect Turkey against Russia • From autumn 1853 French and British public opinion wanted a Russian humiliation • The Buol-Bourqueney terms were accepted by the UK and Russia, the latter accepted so to exploit the growing rift between French and brits to gain something through diplomacy – yet Russia still lost southern Bessarabia • After 1856, UK isolated themselves and left Russia to win argument over minor territorial claims in the eastern question. • Turkey was also guaranteed independence and safeguarded by Anglo-Franco- Austrian treaty of guarantee of April 15. turkey was also given security by land and sea: • Black sea neutralized • Danubian principalities were established autonomous under the protection of all the powers, not just Russia *the Russians were humiliated by their exclusion of naval forces in the black sea • The major consequence of the near eastern Settlement of 1856 was to change the priorities of Russia's foreign policy. • In France, napoleon strove to maintain good relations with UK and simultaneously establish closer relations with Russia • The latter was established by Russia and France promising to not work against each other *the change in Franco-Russian relations inevitably altered Anglo-Russian ones – the British and Russians ceased to cooperate after having worked together to contain the French threat after the 1815 settlement. Following the Crimean war both stopped dominating Europe. _____ • This period (the Crimean War) is also known as the end of the Holy Alliance as it marks the end of the alliance between Austria & Russia • The War was concluded with the Peace Treaty of Paris in 1856 The Making of the Kingdom of Italy, 1856-61 ITALY IN 1850 • Italy was made up of major and minor states. • Two major states had disappeared: republic of Genova and republic of Venice *these republics were aristocratic republics • Two main major states who are independent • Kingdom of Sardinia: Piemonte, Sardinia, city of nice • Kingdom of two sicilies: Sicily and most of south Italy • Other important states • Papal states: from bologna to the south, Lazio, Umbria, Marche (not powerful in military terms) • Kingdom of Lombardy and Venetia: king is the emperor of Austria (hence not independent) • Grand duchy of Tuscany: grand duke of Florence is Austrian –> hence familiar link • Modena and reggio's dukes were Austrian archdukes • Duchy of Parma and Piacenza led by Austrian family and later goes to bourbon family 1 *these states are controlled by Vienna but are influenced and see Vienna as power which guarantees power and stability • Italy was not a nation state, nation only from a religious, ethnic, linguistic point of view because in the period when other big nation states like UK, France and Spain had become nation state Italy did not become nation states because (1) there was not one single state so strong to unify the country and (2) inside Italy there were the papal states which made it impossible to unify the country since it'd mean the disappearance of the papal state, and (3) when king of France Charles x invaded Italy, Italy became battlefield of different ambitions, and overall territory contested by France and the Hapsburgs. • A national movement, patriotic movement was born in Italy in the ruling/elites/ bourgeoise class and the idea/goal was unification of Italy 1848-49 • There was a first war of independence which Italy/piedmont lost because the "times weren’t right," and also due to bad organization and cooperation but Italy had gained support against Austria from France and Britain. While Austria lost Russia’s following the Crimean War • Piemonte obtained nothing but a mediatic success, so much so that Britain, France and Piemonte raised the issue of Italian unification discussed at int'l congress (propaganda) AFTERMATH OF THE CRIMEAN WAR The dismantle of the 1815 Order • Austria’s position had been weakened despite her military triumphs in 1848-49 • Austria’s opponents in Italy did not have any chance to challenge her position in the country • France had established her military presence in Rome as a protector of the pope • The Kingdom of Sardinia had a constitution *the risorgimento had never been a united movement or one supported by the masses • Order of Italy could only be changed in Austria backed away, and only an external power could be enlisted to defeat the Austrian army *Previously, the Kingdom of Sardinia decided to participate in Crimean war alongside France and Britain - because Piedmont wanted to acquire a credit in respect to France and UK which could be used for the Italian problem ITALIAN UNIFICATION Austria, Italy, and France at war • Austria’s control in Italy was not welcomed at all • Neither the Russians nor the PRussians would exert themselves to sustain their former ally’s position in northern Italy • The British were critical of Austria’s stubborn refusal to consider any modification of her treaty rights but the UK did not act against it (AT) • Cavour could not turn to France else France would have replaced the Austrian control in the north of Italy. More specifically, Napoleon III would have a great influence in Rome (due to the already existing link with the Pope) and Naples • In fact, Napoleon followed axiom of French policy: no big nations at our borders. He wanted a country not so strong to resist, but a new Italy in which a French hegemony would substitute the existing Austrian one • The situation in Italy and the fragmented condition of the states system in the later 1850s offered Napoleon the chance to start the revision of the hated Vienna settlement by a war against Austria alone • The true aim of the war would be to make a radical transformation of the 1815 settlement in northern and central Italy. • Russia or the UK would not have taken Austria’s defence, despite being the two powers who idealized the settlement • Napoleon III meets Cavour at Plombiers in July 1858 • Cavour and Napoleon agree that once Austria would be defeated, Sardinia would annex Lombardy, Venetia, the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the northern papal territory of Romagna. Then, a new state under napoleon’s protection would be formed in central Italy, around the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The rest of the papal territories and southern Italy were to remain the same but create a confederation under the presidency of the Pope. • For the success of the France/Italy Austria must have been portrayed as the aggressor so she could not ask for help/aid to the German confederation (art 47 of the German Confederation regarding defensive wars specified that the armies of the other states in the confederation would not intervene when a state attacked, but would only intervene when being attacked) • Austria, wanting to maintain the status quo in Italy, provoked Vienna with a series of military manoeuvres close to the border *Second Italian War of Independence • Austria was encouraged to go to war because it believed that the new order following the demise of the Holy Alliance meant that the UK and Prussia would take her side. • Going to war was a mistake, and isolated greatly the Austrian monarchy • At the battle of Solferino (1859), Austria suffered major defeats • War begins and Russia promises neutrality provided that the war was not a revolutionary one – wanted legitimacy principle • At one point, Prussia may have joined the war, which would have been very difficult for France to tackle down because it was being attacked at two different fronts, yet the armistice came soon • Austria, having lost the war, cedes the territory of Lombardy to Napoleon III –> the armistice of Villafranca (1959) were settled as follows • Napoleon would hand the ceded territory to Victor Emmanuel, who would also receive the duchy of Parma. The Habsburg rulers of Tuscany and Modena were to be restore. Franz Joseph (Austria) was to be the ruler of Venetia and a member of the confederation established under the presidency of the pope in the south of Italy • The armistice reflected the interests of Cavour and Napoleon • The armistice of Villafranca only brought the war to a close, but the Treaty of Zurich of 1959 signed by the Austrian Empire, the French Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia • reaffirmed peace between France and Austria and Lombardy was ceded to France, • then France ceded Lombardy to Sardinia, • re-established a state of peace between Austria and Sardinia 1 • Last territories were conquered in the first world war (sometimes considered Italy's 4th war of independence), like alto Adige and Trieste with Istria and Dalmatian islands (the last two were lost in WWII) The end of the 1815 order in Germany CONTEXT • In place of the Holy Roman Empire the peacemakers of the Congress of Vienna had established a new organization of German states, the German Confederation. This was a loose political association in which most of the rights of sovereignty remained in the hands of the member governments. There was no central executive or judiciary, only a federal Diet meeting in Frankfurt am Main to consider common legislation • Following a great economic crisis and various liberal movements and uprisings in the German states, there was a mandate to rebuild the foundations of political life in Germany • The Grossdeutsch (“great German”) movement maintained that Austria, the state whose rulers had worn the crown of the Holy Roman Empire for 400 years, should play a leading role in the united fatherland. The Kleindeutsch (“little German”) party, on the other hand, argued that the Habsburgs had too many Slavic, Magyar, and Italian interests to work single-mindedly for the greatness of Germany, that Austria should therefore be excluded from a unified Germany, and that the natural leader of the nation was Prussia, whose political vigour and geographic position would provide efficient government and military security for Germany. • According to Franz Joseph, the concept of the confederation led by Austria with Prussia as the loyal second for the unity (≠ unification) of Germany was the political ideal • As the 1860s approached this became increasingly unlikely, especially looking at the divergent policies of Austria and Prussia towards Russia • PRussians began also to support Napoleon III actions in northern Italy and became critical of Austria’s position in Italy • Austria-Prussia conflict sharpens • Prussia was seen as a liberal, reactionary and military state –> Prussia bore a lower public opinion compared to Austria –> Prussia was not diplomatic, available or reliable • Still, Austria would be left very to her own devices defending her position in the German confederation AUSTRIA VS PRUSSIA • Austria was not willing to give up Venetia due to the nature of the city’s importance, despite the French encouragement • In Jan 1863, in Poland (a Kingdom of Russia) a revolt broke out • Prussia wanted to have a say in the matters of policing the Russo- Prussian borders • the western powers and Austria called for amnesty (took polish side) • resulted in Russia and Prussia relationship stronger vs Austria on bad terms with Russia and the western powers. • Schleswig-Holstein crisis of 1863-64: A revived coalition between Austria and Prussia who went to war together against Danish dukedoms • The war lasted three years • The great powers pressured Prussia to accept the London Protocol of 1852 • in the end, Denmark kept the dukedoms • after the crisis, Bismarck (Prussia) remained determined that Austria must be forced to yield to Prussia not only the duchies of the Schleswig-Holstein crisis but also her position in the German Confederation • Bismarck proposed that if Austria would retire from Germany, Prussia would assist her in recovering her old position in Italy –> rejected • the position enjoyed by Austria in Germany since 1815 had been the result of an unusually favourable situation in Europe, and her retention of that position dependent on at least the continuing passive approval of the powers who had helped establish it. • Russia had ceased to underwrite Austria anywhere since the Crimean war –> Austria was too liberal in respect to the Poles, and very stubborn about Italy and Germany • The UK was preoccupied with the US Civil War and could not do anything to help Austria and her German Allies to maintain the old order against Prussia • Italy would side with Prussia *Austrians could not defeat a combination of Prussia, Italy, and France FRANCE’S ATTEMPT TO REVISE THE 1815 ORDER • Napoleon III wanted to favour France in the revision of the 1815 order • France could not count on Italy –> Italy was now ambitious and counting on UK for protection • In Napoleon’s mind, Prussia was the power of the future that would help him against Austria; and Austria was the stronger of the two German powers but since 1859 it was a hopeless case • Napoleon III could exploit the long drawn out conflict between Austria and Prussia to extend his influence in central Europe, restoring his role as the protector of the middle states, convincing Austria to cede Venetia so to re-establish his reputation in Italy • Between 1865-66 Napoleon III talked of neutrality in the German war with Prussia; pressured Austrians to cede Venetia to Italy • Napoleon sent an Italian diplomatic mission to berlin that resulted in an Italo-Prussian alliance AUSTRIA • June 1866: in return for neutrality, the Austrians promised in the event of victory to cede Venetia to napoleon 1 • By ceding Venetia to napoleon rather than victor Emmanuel they managed to evade any recognition of national principle –> the treaty even provided for the transformation of the Kingdom of Italy into a confederation • October 1866: Austro-Italian Treaty of Vienna of 12 October, the Austrian Empire ceded Venetia and Mantua to the French Empire, which in turn would cede them to the Kingdom of Italy in exchange for the earlier Italian acquiescence to the French annexation of Savoy and Nice • Austria recognizes Kingdom of Italy! • Still, the Hapsburgs hold on to South Tyrol and Adriatic lands until the collapse of the monarchy in 1918 • 14 June 1866: outbreak of the Austro-Prussian war –> 3 July: Austrians defeated at Sadowa • Prussian statesmen cleared a path toward German unification, in particular with the Little Germany (Germany without Austria) solution, with the subsequent foundation of the North German Confederation • Austria forced to renounce her role in Germany • Treaty of Prague (1866) was the peace settlement • Required Austria to pay large indemnities • Prussia annexed many states and cities • New order and balance of power The German question and the peace of Europe, 1866-71 NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION • Came about after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 • A constitutional system that did not include states south of the Main, but there were military and commercial treaties that obliged them to coordinate their systems with that of Prussia, to support alongside defensive wars, to participate in the Zollparlament (evolution of the Zollverein) • This led to the election of anti-Prussian leaders in the south of the Main –> could be resolved with the annexation of such states by Prussia, but the idea would not have been supported by Russia, France or Austria France’s take on the new confederation • The new confederation proved to be one of strong power, which once again destroyed the settlement of the Congress of Vienna of 1815 • France wanted a securing compensation after the Austro-Prussian War to bring back to equilibrium the balance of power, Napoleon III wanted compensation in Belgium (but the UK wouldn’t have allowed that) or it wanted to purchase Luxemburg from France FRANCE’S ROLE BETWEEN 1866 AND 1871 • The return of French troops to Rome after the failure of garibaldi’s coup soured relations with Italy • France threatened war with Belgium by first planning to take over the railway • France also tried to please Russia with her action in Crete, Greece –> Russia concluded a formal military convention with Prussia in 1868 instead The Testing of the New Order (1871–79) General characteristics of the period (1871–79) PERIODS BETWEEN NAPOLEONIC ERA AND WWI 1. 1815-1848/49: Period of peace • The 40 years time between the Congress of Vienna and the outbreak of the Crimean War constituted the longest period of peace since the start of the 16th • The post-1815 system was based on compromise, balance, and respect for a legitimate order established by treaties • Peace counted on the superpowers of UK and Russia, the main members of the coalition that made the system 2. 1848-1871: Period of revolutions • The resurgent regimes that emerged in France and central Europe in the 1850s were much more prepared to consider to recourse to war • Napoleon III looked up to the revolutionary doctrine of self-determination against the legitimist doctrine of treaty rights, and often deliberately challenged it • The eastern crisis of 1853-56 saw three conservative powers fighting among themselves • This period comes to an end with the disestablishment of the 1815 settlement – marked by the new Kingdom of Italy and the German Empire 3. 1871 and the return to stability • The Treaty of Frankfurt was followed by an even longer period of peace between the rgreat powers than the Treaty of Vienna. The wars of 1854-71 had modified the international order but not abolished it • The stability of the post 1871 states system was enhanced by a renewed emphasis on legitimacy and treaty rights as the basis of the international order • Represented a return to a conservative order grounded in monarchical authority • The London Protocol of 1871, reaffirming the principle that international treaties could only be modified with the consent of the signatory powers was another sign of the revival of legitimist principles POST-1871 PERIOD • The Franco-German war had a stabilizing effect by making governments fearful of a new war • In the decades after 1871 political considerations of the ruling elites of Europe were cautious and inclined toward conservative solidarity • Even the UK and Austria-Hungary tried to partner with Italy and Spain with the Mediterranean Agreements of 1887-96 so to team up against the republican France • AT–HG remained devoted to the doctrine of monarchical solidarity and opposed in all ways to go to war with Russia • For Russia and Germany national honour and racial solidarity were still more important Imperialism 1 • The period between 1871-1914 witnessed intense rivalries and manoeuvring for position within the states system • Until the 20th century, most of the actual disputes between the great powers arose from their extra-European activities which in turn caused rivalries in Europe • None of them led to an actual armed confrontation • AT-HG was the power least involved in these extra-European conflicts • These extra-European questions wre never important enough to cause war but rather diverted the attention from more dangerous conflicts that existed within the system A decade of loose alignments (1871–79) GERMAN EMPIRE • The creation of the German Empire in 1817 has repercussions throughout the whole European states system • The German empire was in terms of population, military capacity and industrial development, the strongest power on the continent – it was inspired, controlled, and organized by a Prussian elite that had just proved its determination and efficiency *Germany became a dynamic element • German policy was conservative and pacific • Bismarck’s actions led to Germany ceasing to be a conservative and conciliatory power abroad • Bismarck took some wrong decisions that proved to be disastrous • Taking Alsace-Lorraine to enhance the new empire damaged the Franco- German relations • Supporting Junker economic interests damaged its relations with Russia • Using colonial policy for domestic electoral purposes • Resorting to war threats and foreign adventures to escape from difficulties at home • The German empire was accepted in the international community as long as it did not seek to expand any further FRANCE • France was left without allied and could not reverse the 1871 verdict (Treaty of Frankfort) • The republic, in 1877, was led by many unstable govts, often made of coalitions • The isolation and impotence of France in the 1870s was due to the domestic conditions and the machination of Bismarck • Franco-German hostility in the period presented no serious threat to the peace and stability of the European states system ITALY • Italy was characterized by the school of thought that Sardinia had risen to greatness not due to the virtue of her own strength but by skilfully exploiting the rivalries of others • For Italy, Germany might be useful but also was France and Austria • Crispi, after 1877, sought expansion in North Africa to relieve the surplus of population in the south and hoped to form a new Roman Empire straddling the Mediterranean. • France remained Italy’s main rival in the Mediterranean • Italy sought a close alignment with UK and other central powers AUSTRIA HUNGARY • AT-HG wanted to keep friendly relations with Germany to avoid having to lose her German territories in the case of war • The empire was also occupied with other worries like that of a third defeat in the south, where Romanian and south Slav nationalist movements were led by anti- Hapsburg ideas –> they would be worsened if they secured a Russian backing • The monarchy was conservative, a military-aristocratic state, economically under developed, and tied down by a complex constitutional structure • In the early 1870s it lacked confidence and needed support • The monarchy would have liked if the Ottoman Empire and any national states that arose from it remained open to Austro-Hungarian trade and cultural and political influence • AT-HG hoped that the new German empire might be persuaded to join a coalition to hold Russia in check RUSSIA • Russia was not too concerned with the rising Balkan nationalism • Russia’s main opponent was UK in central Asia, especially in India, and in the Straits • Russia and Germany still had a common interest in suppressing polish nationalism • Russia was also concerned with the independent behaviour of Prussia and their ignorance towards the new balance of power based on the independence of the South German states • The treaties documenting Russia’s interests in the balance of power of the central European states was replaced by the Treaty of Frankfurt GREAT BRITAIN • UK was concerned about Asia and the Empire but never lost track of her “closer” continental affairs • Even after the 1815 settlement UK had allied with France, Austria and Sardinia and fought a war against Russia to prevent Russian control of the Ottoman Empire which were a vital link in British communications with India • Likewise, the royal navy had proved to be able to assert British commercial interests against non-European powers like China • The isolationism of British govt prolonged well into the 1870s • France ceased to be a threat to the UK since the fall of Napoleon III • Germany wasn’t a threat since it had no extra-European ambitions EASTERN QUESTION 1 The Eastern crisis of 1875-79 THE FACTS • In the summer of 1875 there was a revival of the Eastern Question, with rebellions in the Ottoman Empire leading with two years to a war between Russia and Turkey and eventually to a confrontation between the great powers • The crisis was sparked off by a nationalist revolt within the Empire and Russia assumed the role as the liberator of the Balkan Christians • In fact, the Christians of Bosnia and Herzegovina were expecting help from outside when they rose against their Muslim leaders • The crisis, in the spring of 1876 was still unresolved and the Bulgarians staged a revolt of a national-political character that resulted is a great blood-shed as the Turks suppressed it • Likewise, Serbia and Montenegro made formal declarations of war to the sultanate and the powers found themselves confronted with a crisis that may have led to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in Europe British reaction and courses of action • The British were generally inclined to uphold the integrity and independence of Turkey against Russia • Yet, Russian advance towards the Mediterranean was definitely unwelcomed by the British • The behaviour of the Turks, their failure to reform, and reports of their brutality made it hard for the British govt to back Turkish integrity • As long as the Three Emperors’’ League persisted the British were unable to fund a continental partner • Even when the league came to an end, British policy in the Near East was largely ineffective Austria-Hungary pov • The Bosnian revolt focused on the need to do something about the unending disorder on the southern frontiers of the monarchy –> the possession of the Bosnian hinterland was essential to the security of the Dalmatian coastal strip which was the monarchy’s standing as an Adriatic power • Andrassy (foreign minister of AT-HG) was pro-Turkish and anti-Slav –> he made sure to guard against Russia’s taking advantage of the crisis to establish her influence throughout the Balkans • More specifically, avoiding a creation of a big south-Slav state under Russian protection • The creation in Bosnia of an autonomous state would need to be replaced by an AT-HG control, not Turkish Russia • Russian policy was very cautious –> avoiding confrontation with AT-HG or UK which may lead to war • Austrians had nothing to gain from a war against Russia • If the Austrian went to war against Turkey instead, they would not be positively seen by the Slav world and would drive all the Christian Balkans in the hands of Russia *The compromise solution had to find in the framework of the Three Emperors’ League EUROPEAN STATES RESOLVING IT • The League was in fact successful in containing the crisis • Russia and AT-HG collaborated successfully to prevent a more dangerous conflict between themselves *for Bismarck it was better if the attention of the great powers were to be directed towards the periphery of Europe, allowing Germany to remain in the background of it all • Russians proposed concessions to the Bulgarian rebels and the creation of an autonomous Bosnian state • Andrassy’s reply was the Berlin Memorandum which asked the powers to press Turkey to grant an armistice to the rebels and a number of reforms •.i. The memorandum was dropped • The aim of the cooperation was not so much to devise a solution to the conflict in the Balkans as to prevent it causing a conflict in between the two most interested great powers • The Reichstadt Agreement was drafted, it held: • If Turkey won, she must be prevented from changing the status quo • If Turkey lost, the Balkan Christian would have to be content with small territorial concessions and varying degrees of self-government • The interests of Russian and AT-HG were kept in mind since • Russia would be allowed to recover a strip of southern Bessarabia • AT-HG would take control of Bosnia and possibly Herzegovina • The Reichstadt Agreement marked a step towards the withdraw of Russia and AT-HG from the concert of Europe • As long as Russia and AT-HG continued to cooperate within the Emperors’ League there was no danger of conflict • At the Constantinople Conference (1876-77) the agreements reached were concession to the Balkan Christians • Serbian, Montenegro and Romania to become independent • The territories of Bulgaria to become autonomous but split in two *The Austrians were saved from the creation of a big Slav state • AT-HG had to deal with the inclusion of an autonomous Bosnia • the sultanate’s lack of new reforms it provoked the Russian government and led to a declaration of war on Turkey in April 1877 • The Russo-Turkish war was contained thanks to Austro-Russian cooperation • In the period Russia counted on AT-HG help • The Budapest Convention of 1877 stated 1 • The Russians promised to keep their military activities away from the frontiers of the monarchy and to refrain from unleashing a revolutionary Slav crusade or creating a big Slav state • The Austrians promised to observe a benevolent neutrality and to obstruct moves from western powers to invoke Turkey’s defence on the Tripartite Treaty of April 1856 • The UK could not intervene, actually British statemen had reasons to fear the Three Emperors’ League • The Russo-Turkish War came to an end with the Peace of Adrianople (Jan 1878): • The Turks were compelled to agree to grant independence and cession of territory to Serbia, Montenegro and Romania • It also created a large Bulgarian state, to be occupied for two years by Russian forces • Bosnia and Herzegovina were to govern themselves as an autonomous state • The definitive peace terms were drafted in the Treaty of San Stefano (March 1878) • The treaty still left Russia isolated, vulnerable and exhausted • The Great Powers, especially UK, were unhappy with this extension of Russian power, and Serbia feared the establishment of Greater Bulgaria would harm its interests in former and remaining Ottoman territories • The Congress of Berlin of 1878 aimed at determining the territories of the states in the Balkan peninsula following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 and came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Berlin, which replaced the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano. • The large Bulgarian state was divided in three parts •.ii. Principality of Bulgaria under suzerain Sultan •.iii. Autonomous region of Eastern Rumelia under a Christian general and an Ottoman military occupation •.iv. Macedonian provinces were given back to the ottoman rule • Serbian, Montenegro (the two with smaller territories) and Romania (without Bessarabia) confirmed as independent • Britain took Cyprus • Austria-Hungary also took over Bosnia and Herzegovina • The region of Sanjak of Novibazar was under Ottoman rule but there were AT-HG commercial and military routes • Russia only had influence on Bulgaria • The Treaty of Berlin was successful for the great powers, but disregarded the conflict at the local level, where the original causes of the instability rose • The “status quo” powers were UK and AT-HG, who together kept Russia in check and strengthened their position as counter-balancing powers in the Near East • The Austrians were willing to cooperate with UK in forcing Russia to respect the Bulgarian provisions of the treat • The UK worked to persuade Turkey that itself and AT-HG could be the only ones to turn to, to fight Russia • For Andrassy, AT-HG, the League was a thing of the past and looked forward to a defensive bloc against Russia • Haymerle (successor of Andrassy) had the following policy ideas: • Cooperation with the British to force Russia to respect the Berlin Treaty • Develop it, in association with UK and Italy into a formidable anti-Russian bloc • *AT-HG does not want to cooperate with Russia, but rather want to work with UK given similar interests • Yet, AT-HG was a weak great power that could not dictate the course of European alignments –> it still wanted alliances • It wanted an entente with the British to defend the Ottoman Empire and the Treaty of Berlin against Russian encroachments (the Turks were still interested in Bosnia and Cyprus, despite their self-styled British and Austrian protectors) • But, there was a turn of events, as the British were adopting distinctively pro-Christian and anti-Turkish foreign policies, especially when defining the frontiers of Montenegro and Greece ■ In Montenegro, they disregarded the appeals of the Albanians whom the Austrians wished to protect ■ In Greece they combined with Russia to coerce the sultan to make concessions to Greece • So, Haymerle was prepared to consider the advantages of standing well with Russia and securing Austro-Hungarian interests in the Near East by a formal agreement, particularly since UK was actively trying to undermine turkey Three Emperors’ Alliance (1881) Germany, AT-HG, RU • The Austrian involved Bismarck in the negotiations and had to lower their terms –> it was German and not Austrian preoccupation that were included in the formation of the treaty founding the Three Emperors’ Alliance • The treaty included: • Each of the three govts had to observe benevolent neutrality if either of the others were engaged in war with another power • Obliged to reach a prior agreement in the event of war with turkey or changes to the ottoman empire • AT-HG had the right to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina (not including Sanjak of Novibazar) • The sultan was to be dissuaded from occupying eastern Rumelia as prescribed by the berlin treaty • In the event of any union, at-hg interests in Bulgaria were to be safeguarded, Russia must not support the union or support its expansion into Macedonia • Russia and at-hg must cooperate in the Balkans and refrain from creating conflict • *the text contained no reference to the doctrine of monarchical solidarity • The alliance highlighted the isolation of the UK, which was wanted by all three govts, as well as the isolation of France, wanted by Bismarck • Thanks to the treaty, Austro-Hungarian interests in the Balkans were now more secure: the treaty imposed no restriction on Austrian activity in independent 1 states like Serbia or Romania –Z Serbia became a principality of political and commercial dependency on Austria-Hungary • Russians too had leeway to work in Bulgaria • The alliance provided the reduction of Austro-Russian tensions in the Near East THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ALLIANCES • In every Balkan crisis in the 1880s Bismarck took the side of the Russians and quieted the Austrian down –> Bismarck’s must hold on to Russia • Bismarck’s ultimate objective was the establishment of real confidence between berlin and St. Petersburg • For Bismarck the Three Emperors’ Alliance was always more important than the Dual Alliance • The dual alliance was redundant and rather a reinsurance treaty, a defensive military agreement for use in the unlikely event of war Russia’s perspective • Russia had an underlying sense of grievance: the Russian policy makers could never really reconcile themselves to the creation of the German empire in 1871 Austro-Russian relations • Developments in the Near East highlighted weaknesses in Bismarck’s alliances • The Austro-Russian relations was exacerbated by the increasingly intractable behaviour of the Balkan states • Balkan monarchs, under pressure of the nationalists, were evermore unwilling and unable to accept the role of mere pawns of the great powers • Russia and AT-HG (both conservative) were exposed to pressure from nationalist elements • In October of 1881, a revolt broke out in Bosnia –> the AT-HG army was busy suppressing it • The revolt was an event which proved the worth of the Three Emperors’ Alliance, but a Russian Army General made a speech in Paris in 1882 accusing the atrocities committed by AT-HG and advocating a Franco-Russian alliance to fight the central powers TRIPLE ALLIANCE (1882) *Germany’s second option if the Three Emperors’ Alliance failed • The triple alliance, made of Germany, Austria and Italy was signed in May of 1882 Italy • For Italy it represented the fulfilment of a long-cherished aspiration • Yet, the Italians were ambivalent, except they agreed that France was an obstacle to their ambitions on the south coast of the Mediterranean, particularly in Tunis • The political Right still wanted to have Corsica, Savoy and Nice back; believed AT-HG was a valuable member of the European states system, to be preserved as a barrier against Russian or Slav control of the Italian- inhabited lands on the altera sponda of the Adriatic • The political Left looked to the incorporation of the territories under AT-HG rule • A point of difference is the refusal of the pope to recognize the kingdom of Italy, which was a further obstacle to close relations between Franz Joseph (the Apostolic King of Hungary) Europe’s leading Catholic monarch, and the House of Savoy • At the Congress of Berlin (1878), Andrassy did not accept Italy’s suggestions that south Tyrol was a just compensation for AT-HG advance in to Bosnia –> nevertheless Germany or AT-HG were willing to help Italy Terms of the Triple Alliance • The triple alliance was a strictly defensive military agreement: • In the event of an unprovoked French attack, the central powers were obliged to come to the aid of Italy, while Italy was obliged to come to the aid of Germany • The three states were obliged to fight together if either or both the others, without provocation on their part, should be engaged in war with two or more non-signatory powers • There was benevolent neutrality is a co-signatory found itself threatened by a fourth power and obliged on that account to make war on it • The addition Mancini Declaration state that the alliance terms cannot in any case be regarded as directed against England Italy in the Alliance • Italy enjoyed a privileged position • Italy gained the most since there was the determination of the allies to fortify the monarchical principle and thereby assure the maintenance of the social and political order in their respective states • AT-HG feared that a republican triumph in Italy would encourage the fall of the Iberian monarchies and a congeries of Latin republics grouped around France. • Bismarck also wanted to reinforce the monarchical principle in Italy so to emphasize the isolation of France • Both supported Italy’s monarchy • From the military pov, Italy had secured the support of two great powers against an unprovoked attack from France, and was committed to only helping Germany against France • Italy only had to observe benevolent neutrality in case of an Austro- Russian war • Italians were less satisfied with the role accorded to the Alliance in the European states system –> despite the alliance, Italy was not recognized as an equal of the other great powers • The German and AT-HGs coordinate for plans to move deep into Russian Poland • Austrians also developed their economic interests in Bulgaria • The Triple Alliance was in Bismarck’s eyes a reinsurance system to be kept in reserve against the failure of the Three Emperors’ Alliance 1 • The Austrians were alarmed at the prospect of a Russian satellite state that they declared their opposition to Russia’s claims to any position of special influence in Bulgaria • The Tsar decided to no longer consider alliances with AT-HG after the terms of the Three Emperors’ Alliance ended in June of 1886 • The end of the Three Emperors’ Alliance meant the Austrians had to find other ways to safeguard their interests –> the Triple Alliance TRIPLE ALLIANCE (2ND BISMARCKIAN SYSTEM) Italy’s position • The alliance favoured Italy, especially when the terms were renewed in 1891 and an Italo-German protocol was included which provided for German military assistance to Italy if the pursuit of her interests in North Africa were to lead to war with France • Likewise, there was an Austro-Italian protocol which extended their cooperation from the Ottoman coasts and Islands to the whole region of the Balkans • Italy slowly began to be interested in “altera sponda” of the Adriatic • Italy’s and AT-HG collaboration was also advantageous to the Austrians since it helped them establish contact with the British • In Feb of 1887 an Anglo-Italian contact laid the foundations for the cooperation of the two powers to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean (actions that were purposefully taken against France and Russia) *This second Bismarckian system served to: – reintegrate the UK into a continental power combination; – give Italy more confidence to resist French pressure – compensate AT-HG for the collapse of the Three Emperors’ Alliance Mediterranean Entente • They were a series of treaties signed in 1887 by the United Kingdom with Italy first then with Austria-Hungary and later with Spain • one of the objectives was to halt the expansion of the Russian Empire in the Balkans Reinsurance Treaty (1887) • a top-secret agreement between Germany and Russia • the treaty committed Russia and Germany to benevolent neutrality is either were involved in a war with a third power • Germany committed herself to support the Russian position in Bulgarian and at the Straits “Diplomatic battle royal” • Conflict arose between the powers of the Mediterranean Entente and Russia supported by France and Germany on the other • In Bulgaria, Prince Ferdinand was elected: the Russians pressured the Turks to deny him, while the members of the Mediterranean Entente pressed the Turks to grant him recognition RUSSIA AND GERMANY *Germany’s presence and full diplomatic ties in both the Mediterranean Entente and the Reinsurance Treaty confirmed the isolation of France and kept Russia within bounds, yet there was a serious contradiction between Bismarck’s promises to the Russians in the Treaty and his role in the Second Mediterranean Agreement –> this led to the deterioration of Russo-German relations in the late 1880s Worsening of Russo-German relations • Caused by economic and financial factors • Germany imposed higher tariffs against imports of grain from Russia & Russia responded by raising their tariffs against industrial imports from Germans –> tariff war • Nov 1887: German govt withdrew its guarantee to underwrite Russian bonds on the berlin stock exchange, resulting in Russian exclusion from the market • The financial problem was exploited by France who in 1888 initiated a series of loans to Russia –> the roots of the Franco-Russian alliance • The accession of Willian II in June 1888 • Led to Bismarck having a role of lesser importance since he was determined to secure a decision-making role • He was a temperamentally very unstable ruler • Led to Germany no longer being a stabilizing element in the European states system • For example, Russia became Germany’s chief enemy, and Germany claimed it would even evacuate Alsace-Lorraine if the demands of a war with Russia required it The Neue Kurs and the reactivation of French diplomacy NEUE KURS, OR NEW COURSE • Caprivi, Bismarck’s successor, had different opinions on Germany’s foreign policy and in many occasions, it went against what Bismarck had done in the previous decades • For Caprivi, Bismarck’s policy of holding on to Russia by accommodating her was a dangerous illusion that risked alienating Germany’s friends elsewhere • Germany’s policy should rather focus on building up its strength and stand by her allies • The 2nd Bismarckian alliance system was also dangerous ■ The Reinsurance Treaty was a weapon that Russia could reveal at any time, and disrupt Germany’s relations with AT-HG, Italy and UK –> Reinsurance Treaty not renewed in June 1980 • Caprivi brought the following changes A. In the issue of the Near East the German ambassador at Constantinople was instructed to join the Mediterranean Entente in supporting the request against Russian and French opposition B. In the economic field, Caprivi accepted the link between commercial policy and diplomacy and moved towards economic cooperation –> granted many 1 tariff reductions to Austria, Italy, Romania, Belgium and Switzerland so to underpin Germany’s alliance system. • In 1894 a commercial treaty put an end to the tariff war with Russia C. Extra-European field, Caprivi made concessions of East African frontiers to UK –> a successful attempt to improve Anglo-German relations • Still, many pressure groups developed that didn’t support Caprivi’s policies abroad, and they became a destabilizing element in German foreign policy Revival of Anglo-German relations • The summer of 1891 witnessed the climax of the Neue Kurs and the strong connection between UK and Germany • The Triple Alliance was renewed and many protocols regarding Africa and the Near East were incorporated in the Treaty’s text • AT-HG and Italy were open to cooperation with Britain, especially due to their naval force • The British were not committed formally with members of the Triple Alliance powers but there was cooperation in day-to-day diplomacy • This was regarded by France and Russia as evidence of a major shift in the European states system FRANCE AND RUSSIA • France was first isolated, like the UK was until the 1890s, but now also Russia was isolated • France and Russia had no conflict of interest, they both wanted to see the UK weakened outside Europe • France’s first concern was Alsace, while Russia’s was the Straits • Between the two govts there was an already existing working relationship in Egypt and the Near East • The UK becoming closer to the central powers gave France and Russia a reason to become closer • This situation resulted in the Franco-Russian agreement (1891) but since France was significantly interested in a military alliance it pushed for such provisions in a coming formal alliance • The Boisdeffre-Obroutchev military convention of 1982 committed the two powers to fight together in the event of an attack on France or Russia by Germany or Italy/AT-HG respectively. *specified the case of a defensive war • The Franco-Russian Alliance was ratified between December 1893 and January 1894 Effect of the Alliance on the central powers • Britain realized that its navy could not defend Constantinople of the seas against the combined fleets of France and Russia • The Austrians began to doubt the effectiveness of the Mediterranean Entente • The Kruger telegram worsened the tensions between UK and Germany and the German hinted at Paris to form a continental league • French would accept • Yet, the Germans improved their relations with Russia and weakened the Franco-Russian tie. • Cooperation between France and Russia did not end: there was a Franco- Russian consortium to take over the Chinese imperial railway –> same objective of squeezing out the other powers altogether. • Germany and UK found themselves on the same side to resist the monopolistic pretension of France and Russia • By the end of the 1890s German policy obliged berlin to adopt an intermediate position between the British and their franco-rusian opponents • Germany in 1897 developed their Weltpolitik, an aggressive German diplomatic policy that aimed for world power, comparable to that of the UK, Russia and the USA. • Germany's gains of Caroline Islands and Samoa were "pathetically small" • Germans were careful to avoid committing themselves to either the franco- russia or the British camp • At the same time the bullying tactics and refusals of commitment that characterized the Weltpolitik made Germany an object of universal irritation and suspicion *The immediate effect of the Weltpolitik confirmed the tripartite grouping of the European powers. • The Russian seizure of port Arthur intensified anglo-russian antagonism • The British feared Russia was set on demarcating an actual sphere of influence in china to the exclusion of British trade • Russians had no room for an agreement with UK limiting their freedom of action in the far east • British could only attempt to counteract Russia’s gains on straight balance of power lines with the help of china • UK also found Russian activity in china alarming and proposed an alliance with Germany, which was rejected • A framework for co-existence had been established within which the scramble for loans and concessions could continue, British and German financiers generally cooperating against French and Russian. • The most intractable conflicts of interests were still those between the British empire and the Franco-Russian alliance • The new French foreign minister Delcassé, continued to regard both UK and Germany as the ultimate enemies of France and confined his diplomatic soundings to Italy and Spain • Delcassé also remodelled the Franco-Russian alliance in 1899-1900 • The revised form stated that the duration of the Franco-Russian alliance was no longer linked to that of the triple alliance and its purpose was extended to cover the maintenance of the balance of power in Europe *for the Russians and the French, UK was no less an opponent than Germany. 1 The Austro-Russian Entente EFFECTS OF THE EASTERN QUESTION OF THE 1880S • The Eastern Question in the 1880s had divided the powers into two embattled camps • The gradual disintegration of the conservative bloc ensure stability and was both a cause and a consequence of the Austro-Russian Entente of 1897 • Happened in parallel with the loosening of UK's ties with the Triple Alliance generally • Austria-Hungary had a firm conviction that if the Ottoman Empire should ever collapse and disappear, the interest of Russia and AT-HG, would prove irreconcilable • AT-HG would have no interest to absorbs the Slavs of the western Balkans and her security would be threatened if Russia gained control of them • Russia, on the other hand, if she ever established herself at Constantinople, she would exercise such influence over the orthodox Slavs of Austria-Hungary at the Hapsburg monarchy would become ungovernable • *there was an incompatibility of Russian and Austro-Hungarian interests • Yet there was little support from London and Berlin in the AT-HG cause, and they were forced to consider the possibility of an accommodation with Russia only • The outbreak of war between Greeks and Turks in April 1897 had the powers entangled in matters of disposing the Ottoman Empire • The British tries to mobilize France and Russia to lend Greece diplomatic assistance when invaded by the Turks The Entente • Franz Joseph visited St Petersburg in May 1897 and the two head of government reached an agreement regarding: i. The maintenance of the status quo in the Near East for as long as possible ii. Strict observance of the principle of non-interference in the internal development of the Balkan states iii. Cooperation between the representatives of the two powers in the Balkans iv. If the maintenance of the status quo is not possible, then there must be a direct agreement as to the future territorial settlement –> this agreement must be imposed on the other powers too • From the start, the entente did not stop the increase of Russian influence in the Balkans, and the diminuition of the Austrian one • Austrians did not intervene in Serbia to prevent the establishment of a nationalist regime • The entente served the interests of both: the Russians with their Far Eastern preoccupations and the Austrians with their national conflicts • The entente served to Europe’s stability as a whole • Austro-Russian dual control of the eastern Question spelt the end of AT-HG’s ties with UK and Italy ITALY AND FRANCE • The effectiveness of the Triple Alliance on Italy wasn’t very positive –> the other two powers were unable and unwilling to assist her expansion overseas • The defeat of Italy by the Abyssinians at Adowa in 1896 • Italy began to reconcile with French • Recognition of French position in Tunis in 1898 • 1990: Franco-Italian interests in North Africa matched –> Italy recognized France’s right to maintain order in the whole sultanate • France declared her disinterest in the ottoman province of Tripoli and recognized Italy’s right to take action if France should ever decide to modify the status quo • The end of Italo-French hostility had Italy focused on the Articles of the Treaty of the Triple Alliance regarding her right to have a say in the Balkans • This was undesired for by AT-HG, but Italy had an ever-increasing interest in the Altera Sponda of the Adriatic • The triple alliance was also undermined by Germany’s adoption of the Freie Hand and AT-HG’s opting for a Russian entente. The end of Anglo-German collaboration CONTEXT • There existed a tripartite power division in the spring of 1901 • France and Russia • Germany and AT-HG and Italy (Triple Alliance) • UK • March 1901: the possibility of the permanent and exclusive control of Manchuria by Russia –> Japanese alarmed and asked both Germans and British whether, if japan went to war with Russia, she could count on the benevolent neutrality to keep France neutral • The German neutrality would be strict and correct • Russians withdrew from Manchuria in 1902 • UK could not count on Germany for assistance against France and Russia in the Far East due to their Freie Hand policies LAST ANGLO-GERMAN NOGOTIATIONS • The Manchurian affair came in the middle of the final round of Anglo-German negotiations • Baron von Eckardstein lied to the British and German govts about each other’s desire for alliance –> very wrong move • 1901: Salisbury argued that UK’s success at Fashoda, and lack of continental powers to unite against her in the Boer War, showed UK didn’t need foreign support, and argued that commitment to fight for AT-HG and Italy outweighed any assistance that Germany could give Britain in worldwide conflicts with France and Russia • 1902: deterioration of Anglo-German Relations 1 • For Lansdowne, the agreement was made for motives of imperial security and did not have any anti-German implications • The Anglo-French agreements reduced friction overseas and contributed to the stability of the European states system, just by reinforcing the tripartite grouping STRENGHENING OF THE AUSTRO-RUSSIAN ENTENTE • The elimination of the Near East as a source of conflict between the two led to a strengthening of the Austro-Russian entente • The two powers were preoccupied with: • Russo-Japanese rivalry • National conflicts in AT-HG that paralyzed parliamentary activity • Terrorism in Macedonia ■ Russia and AT-HG disregarded the terroristic attempts since Macedonia wanted to seize the obvious reaction of Europe which would be to liberate the country from the Ottoman rule –> instead the Entente powers were committed to preserve the status quo and pressed the Sultan to make adjustment to please the Macedonian subjects ■ The German’s feared that any European action undermined the Sultan’s authority, while the Brits and Italians complained the reform program wasn’t radical enough • The Austro-Russian entente had progressed from co-existance to cooperation • Oct 1904, Austria-Russian neutrality Treaty: cooperation in Macedonia and promised to observe loyal and absolute neutrality if either should find itself at war with a third power *Near East was no more a problem and the great powers avoiding Far Eastern conflicts, the stability of the European states system was enhanced by day-to-day diplomacy which offered cooperation without compromising the vital interests of the powers in Europe The First Moroccan crisis and the solidification of the Anglo-French Entente FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS • The Madrid Convention of 1880 declared Morocco to be the concern of all 16 signatory powers, but in 1904 French had special program reforms about French and Spanish control • Germany “Morocco was an independent state in which no power had special rights” • Kaiser Wilhelm II declared he supported the sovereignty of the Sultan –> a provocative challenge to French influence in Morocco. • The Sultan subsequently rejected a set of French-proposed governmental reforms • William II did not have any substantive interest in Morocco; neither did the German government. The central purpose of his appearance was to disrupt the Anglo-French Entente (1904) –> Germany now saw that the friendship between two of Europe’s most powerful nations threatened to override the Moroccan independence, and thus also posed a challenge to Germany’s own influence in Europe and the world. • Germany’s moves only strengthened the bond between the two countries due to their mutual suspicion of Germany Treaty of Bjorko (1905) • a secret mutual defense accord signed between Germany and Russia, the treaty included that • in case one of the two powers is attacked by another European power, the ally will help • the Tsar will take the necessary steps to initiate France to this agreement and engage it to join as an ally • following the treaty the Germans were conceding to France her “special” position in Morocco • the treaty was not ratified by his government because of the pre-existing Franco-Russian Alliance Algeciras Conference • conference called in 1906 to help solve the Moroccan crisis • The German representatives found that their only supporter was Austria- Hungary, while France had firm support from Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain, and the United States. The Germans suffered a significant defeat. • France agreed to yield control of the Moroccan police, but otherwise retained effective control of Moroccan political and financial affairs. Effects of the First Moroccan Crisis • it only worsened the tensions between the Triple Alliance (Germany, AT-HG, Italy) and Triple Entente (France, UK, Russia) –> bipolar system focused against Germany • it convinced the British that Germany was seeking to establish her domination over France, her Russian ally, and the states system as a whole UK AND FRANCE • the new British Foreign minister, Sir Grey, wanted to cultivate an entente with France • gave full support to France at Algeciras • open to military cooperation: sending British forces to fight alongside France in a war against Germany • UK seeing Germany as a potential opponent and drawing closer to France was not part of the plan when the Freie Hand policies were instituted –> awful implications for the Weltpolitik and the Flottenpolitik • Germany was also losing contact and diplomatic favour since Italy had to support France and with AT-HG things were less harmonious after Germany did not side with her against the Sultan’s reforms in Macedonia • The UK was working steadily to “encircle” Germany 1 • Agreements in 1907 with France and Spain to maintain the status quo in the Western Mediterranean • Pressing for arms limitation at the Second Hague Peace Conference • Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 (ended their rivalry in central Asia) ■ Tibet and Afghanistan were neutralized ■ Spheres of influences agreed in Persia: Russian domination in the north vs British in south and east Russia’s reconciliation with UK resolved the problems in Japan. At the same time, there was an agreement with Germany to safeguard the status quo in the Baltic. In September of 1907 the Tsar also paid a visit to the AT-HG foreign minister to talk about joint efforts about the reforms program in Macedonia The Near Eastern crisis and the end of the Austro-Russian Entente BEGINNING OF THE 1900S • The Austro-Russian Entente had been undermined by chronic instability in the Balkan states, where the two powers were committed by the 1897 agreement to observe the principle of non-intervention • AT-HG refrained from intervening in a coup in Belgrade in 1903 • 1905: Serbs concluded a customs union with Bulgaria and placed armaments against France to resists AT-HG dominion –> in that case AT-HG intervened by changing the trading policy but the Serbian public opinion towards of AT-HG remained of hatred and the Serbs found an alternative market in Germany. • Meanwhile, in Russia there was demand for a policy of solidarity with the Slavs and a demand to end the Austro-Russian Entente • Likewise, in Macedonia the possibility of a major AT-HG control was high due to the weak situation Russia was in • From the end of 1905 the Russians wanted the other powers’ consultation on the implementation of financial reforms –> By the end of 1907 in the negotiation over the judicial reforms, the Russians were willing to listen to the British radical ideas that risked provoking a confrontation with the Sultan • Then in 1908, AT-HG revealed her plan to construct a railway linking the Bosnian and Turkish networks though the Sanjak of Novibazar –> a plan of an economic nature, while Russia interpreted it as a plan to alter the status quo that contravened the agreement of 1897. • These concluded on an Anglo-Russian proposal for a stricter control int’l control of the Macedonian budget, and for the employment of European officers in action against the terrorists • The replacement of Austro-Russian control of Macedonian reform by Anglo- Russian leadership of the concert constituted a significant shift in great power alignments • Summer of 1908: Anglo-Russian Asian entente had come to Europe too (so to say) • July 13th 1908: turkey restores its constitution of 1876 • 2 July 1908: proposals for coordinating AT-HG and Russians railway project culminate in Izvolsky’s (Russian diplomat) suggestion to revise the rule of the • Serbian govt refused AT-HG offers of a commercial treaty • Austria could not turn to Russia • French and British were distrustful especially uk who was enthusiastic of Russia’s plan for a Balkan league • Italy sided with Russia to guard against the alteration of the status quo in the Balkans STATUS QUO • Aehrenthal was an advocate of the stability of the status quo • Russia and Balkan govts had no interest to uphold it • Italy in 1910: Austro-Italian agreement on the status quo • UK saw in Aehrenthal a stability purpose in the councils of Europe • Yet the British aligned with Russia and against AT-HG because they felt the real issue at stake was the survival of France and Russia as independent great powers • There was an Anglo-Russia entente could have become a formal alliance to guarantee the non-reemergence of the Dreikaiserbund GREAT BRITAIN VS GERMANY • 1912: UK and Germany are naval rivals • Great Powers ask Germany to end the Flottenpolitik • All German offers of concessions on the naval question were conditional on Great Britain’s giving an absolute promise to remain neutral in a continental war *Negotiations occurred with coordination of France or Russia’s naval plans FRANCE • France was not interested in the Balkan issue at all, her interest laid in North Africa • The French had to suppress rebellions in Morocco and face external challenges from Germany, guardian of Moroccan independence since the Act of Algeciras • Franco-German agreement of Feb 1911: Germany had fair economic treatment in Morocco and Germany accepted French political predominance in the sultanate • The permanent officials of the Quai D’Orsay wanted to protect France’s position in North Africa against all 1 Polarization and war (1911-1914) The Second Moroccan Crisis GENERAL CONTEXT • Summer of 1911: Franco-German disagreements over remote regions of Morocco and Central Africa lead to three year of continuous crisis • First regarding the Ottoman territorial possession in North Africa, then their possessions in Europe • Morocco and Tripoli were physically too far to create a relapse into the polarization of 1908 • The crisis still inflicted damage to the states system in various ways • Steady diminuition of trust, polarization, and a concentration on an armaments race that by 1914 created two groups of powers that were ready for war • The destruction of the Ottoman Empire in Europe creates by 1913 a power vacuum throughout the Near East TIMELINE OF THE CRISIS • Spring 1911: officials in the Quai d’Orsay decide to take advantage of the disturbances in Morocco to occupy the capital, Fez –> this implied a threat to the independence of the Sultanate as stated by the Act of Algeciras (which was also another challenge to the Germans) • The Germans wanted Moroccan independence, yet Morocco was a French protectorate ■ There was German public interests in their commercial and mining interest in Morocco ■ Germany did not object to France's expansion but wanted territorial compensation for itself, while establishing the foundations of a German Mittelafrika by acquiring the whole of the French Congo in return for handing over Morocco to France • July 1st 1911: Dispatch of gunboat Panther arrives in the port of Agadir, Morocco • This causes the British to get involved as they feared the Germans wanted to establish a port for their naval fleet • August 1911: the crisis appears to be primarily Anglo-German, the UK considered sending a force of 160 thousand men to assist the French in case war broke out • November 1911: Franco-German negotiations lead to a Franco-German agreement whereby Germany agreed to recognize French protectorate over Morocco and in return received slices of the French Congo and Cameroon. AFTERMATH OF THE CRISIS Strengthening the Anglo-French Entente *By reawakening the British apprehensions about a German threat to the independence of France, the ties between UK and France became stronger 1) both naval fleets and naval force were engaged so to help one another (eg. Reposition of French fleets in the Mediterranean and the UK fleets in North Sea) 2) heightened moral commitment French foreign policy • French foreign’s policy after the crisis remained the same: Poincaré’s pov was to support one’s friends and keep one’s alliance bloc in a good shape • having flirtations with the other side, and having entente cutting across the alliance system was not in his mindset since it created confusion and the risk of misunderstanding • Poincaré’s foreign policy encouraged a polarized system Germany’s role • The long-term impact on Germany’s role was the reduction of the sources of conflict in their Weltpolitik and Flottenpolitik • The govt concluded that the forceful pursuit of the Weltpolitik in Africa had been counter-productive and decided to settle on negotiation with UK over the future of Portuguese colonies instead • Following the crisis, the declining influence of the Navy League in Germany, left space for the German Army League –> much more open discussion of the possibility of war among the general public • March 1912: Army Law highlights German govt’s preparedness to a war with France Russia and AT-HG • Both Empires’ relations with Germany were unaffected by the 2nd Moroccan crisis • Russo-German relations continued normally, Russia had different interests • Russia was militarily weak and indifferent to west African question (only expressed sympathy for Paris) • Meanwhile, the Hungarian Prime Minister states that Morocco lay outside the scope of the Triple Alliance BALKANS • For both Turkey and AT-HG, Albania could serve as a barrier against a Slav domination of the western Balkans • Russia already had the upper hand in Serbia and Bulgaria • Austrians has the upper hand in Bucharest and Montenegro *Austro-Russian rivalry was contained at low levels of diplomatic measures and could still be accommodated in the states system The Tripoli War and the destabilization of the Near East GENERAL CONTEXT 1 • Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter- attacked, entering Bulgaria. Effects • Demonstrated the marginalization of Russia and AT-HG: both unable to influence the outcome of the conflict • Both were available to revise the Treaty of London, but both wanted to do so just to enhance their personal influence in Bulgaria against the other • France and Germany were on Greece’s side –> Russia backed away • Serbia was occupied digesting her newly acquired territories following the Treaty of Bucharest of 1913 and the Treaty of Constantinople of 1913 (both treaties settled the 2nd Balkan War) The last year of peace GENERAL CONTEXT • The long drawn out Near Eastern crisis has undermined the concert as an instrument for the peaceful containment of crises of the future • From the military pov, all great powers were armed and prepared for war • UK’s naval estimates were the biggest ever • AT-HG also made efforts to raise the size of the army • Germany’s army programme of 1913 was a response to the replacement of the Ottoman Empire by many expansionist states (Balkan states) and it reflected her wish to counter-act the growth of French and Russian military power *Jan 1913: participation of France in a Russo-German war was inevitable • Russian govt’s Great Programme: military expansion and adoption of offensive operation plan • France’s law of 1913 premeditated a French army of the same size as the German one. • Factors that in previous crises had helped to keep peace, they were now unlikely to operate as the two sides approached convergence and confrontation AUSTRIA-HUNGARY • Still isolated following the Balkan wars, had to move and act for themselves • Oct 1913: presented an ultimatum to Belgrade, after the Serbs would not withdraw their troops from the territories assigned by the London Conference • Oct 1913: AT-HG and Italy present an ultimatum to Athens, defending Albania, demanding withdrawal of Greek forces from unclaimed territories TRIPLE ENTENTE • Members of the Triple Entente (UK, France and Russia) also contributed to the drift towards polarization • British ambassadors had regular discussion with the French and Russian ambassadors to coordinate entente policy on daily issues in the Near East • British diplomats instructed to resist Austro-Italian attempt to establish a protectorate over Albania & to vote with pro-Slav French and Russian colleagues • April 1914: talk of Anglo-French and Anglo-Russia naval agreements • The Russo-German relations were deteriorated by a press war in the first half on 1914 TRIPLE ALLIANCE • Within the Triple Alliance (Italy, AT-HG and Germany) AT-HG was left to her own devices • When AT-HG suggested using force if Serbia were to set foot on the Adriatic by engineering a union with Montenegro, the Kaiser was unsupportive • Likewise, the Italians would leave the Alliance if Austria seized Montenegrin coastal territory • Vienna found neither of her allies available to assist her in a series of Balkan questions Chronic disunity of the alliance 1. Germans rarely considered AT-HG’s interests in Asia Minor 2. German advice to make economic concessions to win over Serbia, while Austrian insisted that no economic concession could stop the nationalism and irredentism that struck Serbia 3. Germans joined France and Russia against AT-HG in a plan to internationalize the finances of Albania *the Triple Entente powers registered one diplomatic success after the other BEFORE THE WAR • France and Russia worked to persuade Serbia, Romania and Greece to purchase Bulgaria’s alliance by territorial concessions, at the expense of Albania and AT- HG • Matscheko (rep of AT-HG) recommended to enlist German support for a coordinated diplomatic campaign between Bulgaria, Turkey and Romania • Only after the Sarajevo assassination the policy was to take military action against Serbia • Germany also did not want war, but if Russia refused to back down it is what it would do DECLARATIONS OF WAR • 28 June 1914: assassinations in Sarajevo • 28 July: AT-HG declares war on Serbia • 1 Aug: Germany declares war on Russia • 3 Aug: Germany declares war on France • 4 Aug: UK declares war on Germany • 6 Aug: AT-HG declares war on Russia • 12 Aug: UK and France declare war on AT-HG TENSIONS PRIOR TO THE WAR 1 •) Triple Alliance (1882) vs Triple Entente (1907) •) Arms race: all states had expanded military and navy, heightened military power •) Conflict in the Balkans - First Balkan war (AT-HG vs Ottomans) caused by annexation of BH by AT-HG (Treaty of London 1913) - Second Balkan War: Bulgaria attacked allies Serbia and Greece who are not respecting the Treaty of London (solved by the Treaty of Bucharest, 1913)