L'Età Vittoriana in Inghilterra, Dispense di Inglese

Scarica L'Età Vittoriana in Inghilterra e più Dispense in PDF di Inglese solo su Docsity! THE VICTORIAN AGE The Victorian age took its name from Queen Victoria. Queen Victoria ruled Britain for over 60 years. During this long reign, the country acquired unprecedented power and wealth. Britain’s reach extended across the globe because of its empire, political stability, and revolutionary developments in transport and communication. Many of the intellectual and cultural achievements of this period are still with us today. EXPLOSIVE FORCES When the 18-year-old Victoria came to the throne in 1837, victories over Revolutionary and Napoleonic France had increased Britain’s influence and standing abroad. The Battle of Waterloo in 1815 saw Napoleon's final defeat leaving Britain in an unchallenged position of dominance that was to last until the 20th century. Britain was also one of the few countries to remain relatively untroubled by the revolutions which affected many European countries in the 1800s. But there were intense pressures too.A rising population, rural unemployment and migration to the towns, together with the horrendous conditions in which many people lived and worked, meant that the country's often archaic political system and ways of organising itself were coming under immense strain. This conflict between a small conservative state and the explosive forces of change unleashed by the Industrial Revolution , continued throughout Victoria’s reign. VICTORIAN SOCIETY At the beginning of the 19th century the upper class was built upon the old aristocracy. It still held major political power in the country although the middle class was slowly gaining more and more power. The working class remained excluded from the political process and grew hostile towards the upper class. Victorian society was organized hierarchically. While race, religion, region, and occupation were all meaningful aspects of identity and status, the main organizing principles of Victorian society were gender and class. Victorian gender ideology was premised on the “doctrine of separate spheres.” This stated that men and women were different and meant for different things. puritan conception In the course of the century the middle class expanded, covering a broad spectrum of professionals, it soon became divided into sub-strata, ● lower-middle class, ● mid-middle class and ● upper-middle class. The sub-strata reflected the importance of a person's professional status and earning ability. So we would have the shopkeeper in the lower-middle class section, lawyers and doctors in the upper-middle section and factory owners and entrepreneurs in the middle section. Those belonging to the working class were exploited and lived in extreme poverty. This stratification of society remained intact until the outbreak of the First World War, but even today English people are haunted by the class system which seems, by now, to be rooted in their culture. As far as women are concerned the prevailing ideology of the time portrayed - women as angels of the home' The woman was expected to be the perfect mother, wife and hostess. morality and corruption, between faith and science (in particular, the theory of evolution), between an exasperating liberalism and the conditions of the working class and finally between widespread industrialisation and a nostalgic desire to return to nature and the countryside. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE AGRICULTURE The growth of industry and manufacturing went hand in hand with the increasing difficulties in agriculture. These difficulties were essentially due to the earlier Enclosure Acts and the Corn Laws, which kept the price of bread artificially high. As a result people in need of work were forced to migrate from the country to the towns. By 1890 England became the first country in the world to have more urban than rural dwellers, only 50 years earlier it had been predominantly rural. ENCLOSURE ACTS A series of United Kingdom Acts of Parliament which enclosed open fields and common land in the country, creating legal property rights to land that was previously considered common. CORN LAWS The Corn Laws were tariffs and restrictions put in place from 1815-1846 in the United Kingdom. The Corn Laws caused the price of 'corn', which also includes barley, corn, wheat, and all other grains, to increase. The Laws were designed to protect English farmers from inexpensive foreign imports of grain. INDUSTRY Industry employed many of these workers but such an intensive movement of people in such a relatively short period of time had dramatic social consequences. Housing was scarce, badly built and, no sanitation practically non-existent.Working conditions were also extreme as, despite the Factory Acts, workers still had few rights. Towns became associated with illness, drink and prostitution. FACTORY ACT In 1833 the Government passed a Factory Act to improve conditions for children working in factories. Young children were working very long hours in workplaces where conditions were often terrible. The basic act was as follows: no child workers under nine years of age. The doctrine of 'laissez-faire' of the previous century was still sacrosanct and there was little or no state interference in the lives of individuals, a principle defended by respected Victorian intellectuals such as - John Stuart will Karl Marx (1818-83) and Friedrich Engels (1820-95) drew attention to the injustices and inequalities in society as the growing scale of these problems made them impossible to ignore. Their words did not go unnoticed and many important social reforms were introduced in this period. THE POLITICAL PARTIES OF THE PERIOD England was already in the throes of limited reform: of Parliament, the treatment of Catholics, the way poverty was dealt with, and how the Church was run. To survive, the Tories reinvented themselves as Conservatives under the leadership of Sir Robert Peel and Benjamin Disraeli (1804-81). The Liberals gradually emerged from the old aristocratic Whig Party. Lord Palmerston (1784-1865) and william Gladstone (1809-98) For both parties, low taxation and minimal state interference were the watchwords. The final years of the Victorian Age were politically absorbed by the many problems connected to Irish Home Rule and the complicated path towards a political settlement between England and Ireland. IRISH HOME RULE The Irish Home Rule movement was a movement that campaigned for self-government (or "home rule") for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was the dominant political movement of Irish nationalism from 1870 to the end of World War I. WORKERS’ RIGHTS AND CHARTISM Although the class system was never questioned, the working class did begin to demand more rights, especially the right to vote. The First Reform Bill of 1832 had excluded them by giving the vote exclusively to property owners. The workers began to organise themselves into a movement to demand the vote for all men, this movement became known as Chartism because of the petitions, or charters which they presented to the government. Theirs was a hard battle with many violent clashes against the forces of law and order. However, despite the government's rejection of three of their charters the Third Reform Bill of 1884 finally gave the right to vote to all male workers - labourers, farmers and miners. It was a big step for democracy but it was not until 1918 that all men, regardless of their occupation, would have the right to vote. More equality was also given in reforms such as the ● Married Women's Property Act (1882), ● the Matrimonial Causes Act (1857) ● Right to Vote in Borough Elections (1888). The right to vote in general elections, however, would not be granted until 1928. BRITISH COLONIALISM AND THE MAKING OF THE EMPIRE The 19th century saw British colonial expansion in Africa. AFRICA This had originally begun with slave trading posts but was later, after the abolition of slavery, developed by missionaries and commercial activities. These activities spread to Egypt and the Sudan but South Africa was more difficult to control because of hostility from the Afrikaaners (Dutch settlers) which led to the Boer Wars (1880-81,1899-1902). Le guerre boere, o più propriamente guerre anglo-boere, ebbero luogo in Sudafrica a cavallo fra il XIX e il XX secolo e contrapposero i britannici e i coloni sudafricani di origine olandese, detti boeri. AUSTRALIA Australia was initially colonised as a penal settlement for criminals. NEW ZEALAND New Zealand was colonised in 1840 just before the French took hold, followed by Hong Kong in 1841 which, along with Singapore, were fast becoming the greatest ports in Asia. With Gibraltar, Malta and Cyprus Britain had a protected sea passage right through to the Suez Canal, which Britain partly owned from 1875. The colonies were supervised from 1801 by the India Office and the Colonial office, which became a separate government department in 1854. They were generally self-governing and in each territory there was a governor who represented the British Crown and would appoint local officials to help introduce laws and advise on government issues. In the last years of 1800 Hawaii was peacefully annexed in 1898 but in the same year McKinley was forced to declare war with Spain over its increasing oppression in Cuba.As a result, America gained the Philippines and Puerto Rico but chose to leave Cuba to form its own republic. It was the beginning of American Imperialism. ENGLISH COLONIALISM In spite of the Napoleonic Wars and the American War of Independence, England's colonial expansion accelerated. In 1820 about 200 million people lived in countries under British control. Slavery, which was one of Britain's most profitable trades due to its colonies, became one of the main concerns of new humanitarian movements in this period. As a result of the rigorous campaigning of one such humanitarian movement, the total abolition of slavery in the British colonies was brought about in 1833, making Britain the first country in Europe to abolish slavery. VICTORIAN LITERATURE THE NOVEL The novel is the literary genre which best represents the ethical, religious and social values of the Victorian Age. The major novels dealt with the most important themes of the time such as the problems associated with industrialisation and philanthropy. ● The typical Victorian novel had an omniscient narrator ● the plots were long, complicated but linear. ● The characters were also central to the plot and the Bildungsroman was a form adapted in different ways by Victorian novelists such as Charlotte Bronte, Charles Dickens and George Eliot. The novel was seen as the most valid instrument in literature to interpret the human condition in the modern world. At the same time, however, it maintained its role of entertainment for the middle-class reader, who showed a preference for stories that depicted reality but also offered a certain amount of escapism from daily life. The great success of the novel in this period can be put down to two main factors. 1. To begin with there was an ever-growing number of people who were able and wanted to read. The popular idea of publishing works in installments in newspapers and magazines reduced their costs, making them more accessible. It also created an ongoing interest in the plot and how it would develop (similar to today's TV soap operas). 2. Increasing profit was another factor contributing to the success of the novel. To satisfy public taste there were many different genres available: from historical to psychological, from philosophical to sentimental, from adventurous to social. THE AUTHORS Victorian writers can be divided into three groups: ● the early Victorians like Charles Dickens who dealt with social and humanitarian themes; ● the mid-Victorians among whom the most outstanding writers were women such as the Bronte sisters, George Eliot and Elizabeth Gaskell; ● the late Victorians, whose best representatives are Thomas Hardy and Oscar Wilde. THE EARLY AND MID VICTORIANS ● Charles Dickens (1812-70) is the best example of an early Victorian writer. He is also one of the most famous writers in English literature and one of the most outstanding novelists of the 19th century. In his novels he used realism to deal with the social problems of his time; problems stemming from poverty, bad housing and inadequate education. Despite these oppressive themes his novels are rarely tragic as they had a strong moralistic purpose that almost inevitably led to a happy ending, as good would triumph over evil. Other famous early Victorian writers were: ● William Makepeace Thackeray (1811-63) who, in his novel Vanity Fair, portrayed the society of the time by focusing on the upper-middle class ● Elizabeth Gaskell (1810-65) who wrote novels dealing with the conflicts between employers and workers. The most important mid-Victorians were the 1. Bronte sisters, Charlotte (1816-55) and Emily (1818-48), who did not focus their interest on social issues; their novels, partly influenced by the gothic tradition, explored the sphere of individual feelings and emotions. Charlotte wrote Jane Eyre (1847), the story of a poor orphan who goes through many trials and tribulations before finally marrying happily at the end of the novel. Emily Bronte'sWuthering Heights (1847) is considered one of the greatest novels in English literature. 2. George Eliot (1819-80), author of the novel Middlemarch is the other great female writer of the Victorian Age and her novels dealt with ethical conflicts and social issues. she is often considered the pioneer of psychological fiction. THE LATE VICTORIANS In the later years of the century the literary atmosphere underwent a profound change. ● With Thomas Hardy (1840-1928), Victorian optimism which had characterised the first half of the century was replaced by a bleak/CUPO fatalism. His most famous novel is Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891) in which the protagonist, the beautiful Tess, becomes the victim of the powers of fate. The were born in rural contexts. Hardy went to ARCHITECTURE lower class /outside has experienced first hand the unfair dynamics of Victorian England. 1 hope for social change is frustrated 2 pessimistic attitude towards men's faith prevail He considered himself as more a poet than a novelist Wessex-quite sad world of England Jude The Obscure - controversed (sex and religion) JOSEPH CONRAD Literary critics of the time on the one hand commented favorably on Conrad's writings and on the other pointed out that his exotic style, complicated narrative, deep literary themes and pessimism often discouraged the reader. was born in Ukraine he was polish Apollo was his father and when he was 20 he was broke and disperate At 21 he learnt English and 3 language ACT OF DARKNESS - Conrad most famous book Colonialism - APOCALYPSE NOW THE SECRET AGENT SHADOWLINE Dandyism, to some extent, has always existed. In general, a dandy is one who pays particular attention to his own personal appearance. Their dress is often eccentric, yet elegant. Specific to late-Victorian England, to be a dandy meant to also elevate the artificial over the natural. SEXUALITY & HABITS In 1885 Britain’s Parliament outlawed homosexuality with the Labouchere Amendment. Males caught engaging in any type of sexual activity with another male could be sentenced to up to two years in prison. Despite this law, the late-Victorian period saw an increased interest in the exploration of sexuality. Not only were gender distinctions increasingly blurred, but the presence of homoerotic desires became more and more obvious within the public sphere. In fact, it was during this period that the words “homosexual” and “lesbian” were first used. The aesthetes were both products and propagators of these new liberal attitudes towards sexuality. VICTORIAN POETRY TWO KINDS OF POETRY During Victoria’s reign, poetry became more concerned with social reality and was expected to express the intellectual and moral debate of the age. ● This led on the one hand to the creation of majestic poetry linked to the myth and belief of the greatness of England; ● on the other hand to the creation of poetry more inclined towards anti-myth and disbelief which had to solve the ethical problems raised by science and progress. NEW IMAGE OF POET Now the poet was seen as a ‘prophet’ and a ‘philosopher’. People expected that he could reconcile faith and progress, as well as sprinkle a little romance over the unromantic materialism of modern life. In contrast with the Romantic Age, which saw poetry as the predominant literary genre, the Victorian period does not have a cohesive group of poets. The two main poets of the time were ● Alfred, Lord Tennyson ● Robert Browning. ALFRED , LORD TENNYSON Alfred, Lord Tennyson (1809-92) was not only one of the greatest poets of the Victorian era, but also one of the most representative figures of the time. ROBERT BROWNING Robert Browning (1812-89) was the creator of the dramatic monologue, which aimed at producing an objective yet moving form of poetry in which he wanted to express man's life and inner conflicts. The use of different registers in his poetry detaches him from the Romantic tradition of poetry and makes him a precursor of 20th-century poets like T.S. Eliot. The dramatic monologue is a narrative poem in which a single character may address one or more listeners. It is related to the soliloquy used in Elizabethan plays: in Hamlet’s famous soliloquy (→ T21), for example, the character addresses himself and the audience in a moment of self-exploration. In a dramatic monologue the speaking character is different from the poet himself, and is caught in a crucial moment of crisis Other important poets of the time were the Jesuit priest, ● Gerard Manley Hopkins (1844-89), one of the most experimental of the Victorian poets, ● Christina Rossetti (1830-94), the artist - Dante Gabriel Rossetti's sister, ● Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806-61) married to Robert Browning, whose most famous poems, however, are those inspired by the love for her husband VICTORIAN THEATRE In spite of the advances in stage design and the popularity of the theatres, which were attended mainly by the city workers, the theatre in the Victorian Age cannot boast any great playwrights except for the two dramatists writing at the end of the century, ● Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) ● George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) It is interesting to note that the most popular plays at the time were those by Shakespeare.