Understanding America - NORTH-AMERICAN LITERATURE (FIRST YEAR) , Schemi e mappe concettuali di Letteratura Americana

Scarica Understanding America - NORTH-AMERICAN LITERATURE (FIRST YEAR) e più Schemi e mappe concettuali in PDF di Letteratura Americana solo su Docsity! EXCEPTIONALISM 1. Heike Paul, The Myths that Made America (2013) Topic: The passage discusses the concept of American exceptionalism, exploring its historical roots, various dimensions, and its role in shaping American identity. It also touches upon the relationship between American exceptionalism and myths, civil religion, and the field of American studies. The text examines how the idea of American exceptionalism has evolved over time and been utilized in different contexts, including its connection to the discipline of American studies during the Cold War era. Argument: American exceptionalism is a multifaceted ideology that has deep historical roots and manifests itself through the religious, political, and economic dimension. It plays a significant role in shaping American identity and has been used as both a unifying force internally and an ideological tool for projecting American hegemony externally. The passage emphasizes the complex nature of American exceptionalism, its connections to various myths, and its impact on academic disciplines like American studies, particularly during the Cold War era. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Tocqueville's Perspective: Alexis de Tocqueville in one of his works stated that ‘’the position of the Americans was quite exceptional’’. Here, he used the term ‘’exceptional’’ referring to their political system, rather than the people or culture. He believed that their democratic system was God-willed and that it would eventually spread worldwide. In fact, this system had grown in exceptional ways, without any influence of feudal structure and aristocratic opposition. Evolution of American Exceptionalism: Over time, American exceptionalism has been decontextualized from the concept expressed above and came to describe the genesis of the American nation. It is characterized by the belief that the United States was created differently, developed differently, and thus should be understood differently from other nations. We can identify three types of exceptionalism: - Religious Exceptionalism: Traces the concept back to Puritan origins. It finds its roots in the belief that the first generation of New England settlers were ‘God’s chosen people’ (we can find this belief in John Winthrop’s A Model of Christian Charity and William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation). - Political Exceptionalism: It focuses on the discourse in regard to the political founding of the American republic, with references to key figures like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine. - Economic Exceptionalism: Often connected to the notion of individualism, in which individual success is mostly understood in economic terms. It emphasizes self-interest as legitimate and necessary for the well-being of the nation. It discusses the myth of the self-made man and the promise of economic success tied to freedom and equality. Concept of civil religion, the belief that the American nation is guided and protected by God. It borrows selectively from religious traditions to create symbols of national solidarity. America is the only nation founded on a creed, that is also mentioned as a foundational belief in the Declaration of Independence. American exceptionalism served as a powerful hegemonic construct within academic discourse, political doctrine, and the development of U.S. national identity. American Studies scholarship in three major phases: national, subnational, and transnational. - National Phase (Late 1930s to 1950s): The Myth and Symbol School emerged during this period. Scholars focused on identifying myths and symbols that affirmed American exceptionalism (they were not impartial). The American Studies movement gained institutional shape during this time. Scholars like Henry Nash Smith, R.W.B. Lewis, and Perry Miller explored the concept of the "American Adam" (prototypical ‘new world’ settler, also emblem of ‘new world’ beginnings) and delved into religious discourses, particularly Puritan theology. - Subnational Phase (1960s to 1980s): The Critical Myth and Symbol School challenged the earlier scholars. Movements like civil rights, women’s rights, and anti-war movements led to understanding that American myths had implications which privileged certain groups while marginalizing others. The focus shifted to examining violence, racism, sexism, and genocide as foundational aspects of American culture. The scholars of this phase aimed for a more inclusive narration of America, addressing issues of identity and power asymmetries. They were concerned with critiquing the ideology of American exceptionalism, not with affirming the superiority of American culture and society. - Transnational Phase (1990s to the present): The New Americanists marked a paradigm shift towards a transnational perspective. Scholars like Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease's work emphasized a global context and questioned American exceptionalism. The transnational approach sees the continental expansion as the result of imperialism rather than domestic politics. The transnational approach considers issues such as imperialism, border studies, and multiculturalism. The transnational approach seeks to study the US as "a nation among nations" and challenges the notion of American exceptionalism. The idea of American exceptionalism, or being "special" in a particular way, can be seen in two ways: possessing a unique quality or embracing a specific mission. This mission can be religious or political, aiming to spread liberty or democracy globally. Critics argue that this belief in a mission is dangerous, particularly in today's world where religious fundamentalism is a major issue. They suggest that mixing religion with foreign policy is wrong and even idolatrous. Critics further claim that this idea of a mission is harmful structurally because it closes off alternative approaches to international relations, favoring a more realistic, power-focused perspective. Some realists argue that America's power in the world is declining, mainly due to economic factors like debt and budget constraints. They say America can't afford to pursue its mission as aggressively as before. While some see this decline as a loss, others view it positively, suggesting a more modest role for America on the global stage. alternatives to ‘exceptionalism’: realism and declinism - realism: international affairs are dictated by nations ’ interests and not by a Godgiven mission. - declinism: America’ s world influence is now irreversibly declining “Americans must think of themselves as more ordinary because they are more ordinary ” realism as ‘triumphalist declinism ’ : “blessed is the nation that shall disinherit the earth” Nature 1. William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Book 1, Chapter IX and X Bradford's personal background is outlined. He was born in Yorkshire, raised by his grandparents and uncles, and did not receive a university education. He was exposed to the teachings of the Nonconformist minister Richard Clyfton, which significantly influenced his life. Bradford joined the Separatists, a group that sought to establish "particular" churches based on a formal covenant. They did not believe in reforming the Church of England from within and instead wanted to follow a model similar to Calvin's. The text is about William Bradford's life and his written ‘’History’’, which speaks on the expedition, so it's basically a diary of the early history of the Plymouth Colony. After settling at Plymouth in an exodus from England, he got elected governor. Bradford the difficulties in living in a foreign land, the Scrooby community, to which Bradford belonged, petitioned for a grant of land in the New World. They initially aimed for Virginia but ended up settling in Plymouth, Massachusetts. From his description of their arrival, America doesn't sound to be the promised land yet. Rather dangerous, very negatively described, compared to Columbus' upbeat take, in which he highlighted the richness of the land. It's described as wilderness. But it's a spiritual wilderness. The ‘’wild men’’ are the Native Americans. New England doesn't seem to be a welcoming or friendly place. A few days after their arrival, the Englishmen encountered the native inhabitants, who they called the savages. The latter were scared at first, so they ran away. The Englishmen stole their food, and they justified themselves by saying that God wanted them to do it because they needed to survive in order to achieve their task, that was God-sent. They were afraid of Indians attacking them, so they made barricades every night to be ready for any attack. Indians at some point threw arrows at them. William Bradford is described as epitomizing the spirit of determination and self- sacrifice that characterized the Pilgrims. The term "Pilgrims" is used to refer to the community of believers who sailed on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth in 1620. The Pilgrims sought a place where they could be safe from persecution, and Plymouth became that chosen refuge. 2. Jefferson: QUERY XIX, The present state of manufactures, commerce, interior and exterior trade? Thomas Jefferson, in this text, discusses the economic priorities and virtues of the American people, particularly in the context of manufacturing, commerce, and agriculture during a historical period, likely the Revolutionary War era. Jefferson argues against an emphasis on domestic manufacturing, asserting that the nation's strength lies in its vast agricultural resources. He highlights the inherent virtue of those engaged in agriculture, portraying them as the chosen people of God. The text advocates for a preference for agriculture over manufacturing, expressing a fear that dependence on the latter may lead to corruption. Ultimately, Jefferson suggests that, despite the challenges in transportation, it is better for the citizens to focus on cultivating the land, importing manufactured goods, and maintaining their distinctive way of life. He advises keeping most manufacturing in Europe, believing that it's better to transport resources there than to import foreign manners and principles. 3. Ralph Waldo Emerson: excerpts from "Nature" (1836) Topic: The topic of these excerpts from Ralph Waldo Emerson's "Nature" is the philosopher's exploration of the relationship between humanity and the natural world. Emerson critiques the retrospective nature of his time, advocating for an original and direct connection to the universe. He delves into the philosophical idea that the universe is composed of both Nature and the Soul, emphasizing their interconnectedness. The excerpts also discuss the transformative power of solitude, the impact of nature on human perception, and the need for a genuine connection with the natural world. Overall, the central theme revolves around Emerson's philosophical reflections on the role of nature in shaping human experience and understanding. Argument: Ralph Waldo Emerson's argument in these excerpts from "Nature" revolves around the need for individuals to establish a direct and personal connection with the natural world. He criticizes the retrospective tendencies of his time, where people rely on the past for guidance, and calls for an original relationship with the universe. Emerson advocates for a poetry and philosophy rooted in personal insight rather than tradition, suggesting that the constant examination of history can hinder one's ability to perceive the present and explore new ideas. Furthermore, Emerson introduces the idea that the universe is composed of both Nature and the Soul, highlighting the interconnectedness of all things. He argues that a genuine connection with nature is essential for true understanding, and he explores the transformative power of solitude in fostering this connection. Emerson asserts that nature, when truly perceived, never appears mundane, emphasizing its ability to evoke a sense of wonder and delight. He also highlights how for a man to retire in solitude means to connect with nature away from society. But in his opinion, not every man's mind is open to access this kind of delight, which connecting with nature produces. In fact, very few adults are capable to become part of it. Nature heals from any kind of hardship or disgrace. A man in nature is one with the other creatures. However, the sense of calmness and joy cannot be felt if there is not a harmony between the two. And, as the author argues, that scene is very melancholic today. 4. H.D. Thoreau, Walden; or Life in the Woods (1854), Solitude In this passage from "Walden" by Henry David Thoreau, the main theme revolves around the author's appreciation for solitude and his deep connection with nature. Thoreau describes the joy he experiences in moments of solitude, especially during the evening by the pond. He finds solace and delight in the sounds of nature, such as the trumpeting of bullfrogs and the call of the whippoorwill. Thoreau reflects on the joy he finds in moments of solitude, the meaningful interactions with nature, and the therapeutic effects of being alone in the natural environment. The passage also explores the idea that true companionship can be found in the natural world, emphasizing the richness of the author's experiences and reflections during solitary moments. Argument: The primary argument in the passage from "Walden" by Henry David Thoreau revolves around the value and benefits of solitude, particularly in the context of the author's relationship with nature. Thoreau argues that being alone in nature is not a lonely or isolating experience but rather a source of profound connection, joy. He suggests that solitude allows for a deep appreciation of the natural world, fostering a unique and meaningful relationship with it. Thoreau also contends that solitude provides an opportunity for introspection and self-discovery. 5. J.H. Kumstler - Eden updated; The text delves into the American historical context and the feelings regarding urbanization, countryside, living, and the perception of nature. "The Geography of Nowhere" explores the decline of the American landscape and the negative impact of urban planning and development. In Chapter Four, titled "Eden Updated," Kunstler likely continues to discuss the consequences of modern urban planning, architecture, and suburban living. The author critiques the loss of a sense of place, community. The argument revolves around the need for a reevaluation of urban design principles to create more sustainable, livable, and aesthetically pleasing environments. Kunstler spheres, leaving no space for the actual construction of a society in which humans have a place in nature. The whole concept is a delusion which makes people think they can escape from society and what comes from it – responsibility, deeds – through the shelter that is nature in its wild form. Cronon also challenges the notion that the only way to appreciate and protect the environment is by preserving it in a state untouched by human influence. He argues that this perspective can lead to a disconnection between people and their environment, fostering a mindset that sees human activity as inherently destructive. He shows how the use of the word ‘wilderness’ has changed connotations throughout time, with it being used in negative context during the 18th century. For instance, we can find examples of it in King James’ Bible, in which he used this term to refer to places of confusion and despair. In fact, wilderness was considered to be a place that one could only enter against one’s choice, always quivering with horror. In the 19th this completely changed, and wilderness started to be associated with Eden, a place in which one could feel God’s presence, and for this reason nature in its wild state had to be preserved and left untouched by civilization as much as possible. This transformation has to do with the invention of the concept of ‘’sublime’’ by the romantic movement in the 18th century, used by poets to refer to rare places on earth where one could really feel connected with God. The idea of the frontier and that of sublime converged into the idea of WILDERNESS. European immigrants who went to America saw the wild lands of the frontier as a mean of redemption, of renewal (they had to rebuild their societal institution from nothing). The return to an idealized primitive form of society was seen as an antidote to the troubles of the modern world by those stressing the concept of myth of the frontier. Moreover, the author highlights the irony behind the fact that wilderness slowly became the main attraction of wealthy tourists’ travels, and consequently, it assimilated the traits of that civilization that those people felt the need to escape from. These tourists convinced themselves that what they were seeing was an untouched, virgin land. However, the reality was that Native Americans were forced to leave what once was their homeland. In summary, Cronon's argument in "The Trouble with Wilderness" revolves around the need to reconsider and critique the romanticized notion of wilderness in environmental discourse, emphasizing a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between humans and nature. 9. Gura, Nature Writing: Topic: The article focuses on the concept of nature writing within the context of American Transcendentalism, particularly examining the works of Henry David Thoreau as its most prominent exponent. Argument: The argument in the article revolves around understanding and defining nature writing. The author explores the nature writing genre, delving into what constitutes Transcendentalist nature writing and why certain authors, such as Thoreau, are considered more successful at it than others. The article aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on nature writing by tracing its roots in Transcendentalist thought. The author, Philip F. Gura, engages with the historical context of nature writing, acknowledging the attempts of literary critics, including Philip Marshal Hicks, who, in 1924, provided a strict definition of the genre. Gura may critique or build upon these definitions, offering insights into the characteristics and qualities that distinguish Transcendentalist nature writing. The mention of Thoreau and Emerson suggests that the article examines specific examples from these influential Transcendentalist writers to illustrate the principles of nature writing. Thoreau's focus on the restorative powers of nature, as described in the article, indicates an exploration of the thematic elements that make Transcendentalist nature writing distinctive. All of Thoreau’s works stress the importance and value of nature as intrinsic. He advocated for a style that accurately captured the essence of the natural world without the need to turn to sentimentalism. With Fuller, we see a sociological shift, since she highlights the mistreatment of Native Americans by protestant settlers. In summary, the article seeks to contribute to the scholarly understanding of nature writing by examining its manifestation within the Transcendentalist movement, using Thoreau and Emerson as key figures, and engaging with previous critiques and definitions provided by literary critics such as Marshal Hicks. Frontier 1. Henry Smith; The Virgin Land; Prologue "The Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth" (1950) by Henry Nash Smith: The concept of what defines an American has been a recurring question throughout history. Various characteristics such as freedom, diversity, have contributed to the American self-image. Jackson Turner’s notion of the frontier shaping American development remains a dominant interpretation of the past. Initially the West was seen as very dim, but as sovereignty extended over the Mississippi Valley, the economic interest of the empire began to take shape. Franklin foresaw the significant role that North America could play in shaping British power. Franklin's concept of an empire centered in the interior of North America raised concerns among the English. But with the achievement of the American independence, the belief in a continental destiny quickly became a central aspect in the developing of American nationalism. Franklin also proposed an alternative approach, seeing colonies as not just sources of raw materials but as substantial and large as poor British goods. In his opinion, encouraging agricultural settlements in the interior would boost British exports. The early visions of an American empire embodied two different conceptions. The first one: empire as dominating global trade, which drew from British mercantilism. The second: empire as a popular future society in the fertile lands of the American continent, which depended on agricultural expansion today. The second version is closer to the actual expansion in the 19th century. Topic: the cultural and symbolic significance of the American West in American history and literature. Arguments: Smith argues that the concept of the frontier and the myth of the West influenced American literature, popular culture, and the national psyche. He contends that the West became a central part of the American cultural mythology. The book includes a literary analysis of works by various authors, including James Fenimore Cooper and Frederick Jackson Turner, examining how these writers contributed to the construction of the frontier myth. Smith investigates how the myth of the West evolved over time, adapting to changing cultural and historical contexts. 2. Turner; The Significance of the Frontier in American History (1893) "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" is an influential essay written by Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893. His work has had a lasting impact on the study of American history. Topic: The essay explores the role of the frontier in shaping American identity and culture. Turner focuses on the westward expansion and the closing of the frontier as a defining factor in the development of the United States. Argument: Turner argues that the existence of the American frontier played a crucial role in shaping the national character and distinctiveness of the United States. He posits that the constant westward movement and the encounter with the frontier, which he defines as the line of most rapid and effective Americanization, were instrumental in shaping the democratic and individualistic values of the American people. One of Turner's key points is the idea of the frontier as a safety valve for social discontent. He suggests that the availability of free land on the frontier provided an escape for those facing economic hardships or social conflicts in the East, preventing the rise of a permanent underclass and promoting social mobility. Additionally, Turner argues that the frontier experience fostered a unique American spirit characterized by self-reliance, individualism, and adaptability. He contends that the challenges of the frontier environment required settlers to develop innovative and democratic solutions to problems, contributing to the formation of a distinctive American society. Turner's thesis, however, has been subject to criticism and revision over the years. Some scholars argue that it neglects the experiences of Native Americans, women, and other marginalized groups whose perspectives and contributions are not adequately represented in Turner's frontier thesis. Nevertheless, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" remains a landmark work that has shaped the discussion of American identity and history. Emerson argues that each person is a unique and self-sufficient individual, possessing the power to shape their destiny. He suggests that great minds like Moses, Plato, and Milton were revered not because they adhered to existing traditions but because they dared to express their original thoughts. He also argues that non-conforming individuals should reject society’s moral elements (slavery). He draws attention to the wisdom that can be found in observing the innocence and behavior of children as symbols of natural authenticity. Divergence between the youthful and unfiltered perspective of children and the self-consciousness of adults. 2. Thoreau; Resistance to Civil Government, 1849 ‘’that government is best which governs the least’’ – motto associated with Jeffersonianism. "Resistance to Civil Government" is an essay by Henry David Thoreau that explores the concept of individual resistance to government actions and policies perceived as unjust. Thoreau wrote this essay in 1849 after spending a night in jail for refusing to pay a poll tax, which he felt supported the Mexican American War and the institution of slavery. This was a form of protest indeed. In fact, he advises avoiding paying taxes in order to refuse financing injustices. The central theme of the essay revolves around the idea of conscientious objection to government actions that violate one's moral principles. He criticizes various aspects of the governmental system, viewing it as an expedient with limitations and potential abuse. He also criticizes the role of citizens serving the government like machines (one should act according to their own moral conscience). Thoreau rejects any kind of association to a government that is oppressive and supports the right of revolution against tyranny or inefficiency. For example, when part of the population is enslaved and undergoes oppression, it is time to reject this system. This text was written 20 years before the civil war, but he states that slavery is a disgrace. Subsequently, he goes on to accuse the inaction of many who claim to be against slavery but do nothing substantial to fix those issues. He believes that the abolishment of slavery starts with practical acts. Just opposing it is not enough, you either act or you are not doing anything. In his opinion, the American populace is conformist in nature, reliant on mutual insurance and apathetic towards social justice. "Resistance to Civil Government" has had a profound impact on political and social thought, inspiring later figures such as Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. Thoreau's emphasis on individual moral responsibility and the duty to resist unjust laws has resonated with those seeking social change through nonviolent means. He asserts the supremacy of individual conscience over blind obedience to the state, urging people to prioritize their own moral compass. Thoreau calls for a limited government that respects individual liberties. 3. Walt Whitman (1819-1892), Excerpts from “Song of Myself” It is about individualism. It stresses the idea that America was not just an appendix of England, but they were able to establish a culture of their own. He participates in the nationalistic quest, in the research of a national identity. It’s a celebration of the American wilderness, which is linked to God, thus God must be more present here then anywhere else. In Emerson, the world is structured according to 2 entities: the individual and nature. Everything that is me or not me. We see the same thing in ‘’Song of Myself’’. The poet wishes to maintain the identity of his individual self, and yet he desires to merge it with the universal self. Walt Whitman's "Song of Myself" is a transcendentalist and celebratory exploration of the self, nature, and the interconnectedness of all existence. The poem, which is part of his collection "Leaves of Grass," emphasizes the idea that the individual self is a microcosm of the larger universe. Whitman rejects conventional poetic forms, opting instead for free verse, reflecting his belief in the freedom and expansiveness of the human spirit. In the poem, Whitman expresses a deep connection with nature and the universe, acknowledging the beauty in every individual. He sees himself as a representative of all people and embraces a democratic vision of the self as an integral part of a larger, collective identity. "Song of Myself" is not only a celebration of the self but also a call to embrace the fullness of existence. Overall, the argument is one of affirmation and inclusivity, urging readers to recognize the beauty within themselves, in others, and in the world around them. It's a celebration of life and an invitation to explore the profound connections that bind the self to the universe. 4. Robert N. Bellah et al., Individualism The text explores the complexities of individualism within American culture, discussing its roots in various traditions such as biblical, civic, utilitarian and expressive individualism. While emphasizing the importance of individual autonomy and dignity, it also highlights the paradoxes and conflicts embedded with modern individualism. It traces the historical evolution of individualism and the influence of thinkers like J. Locke. In "Habits of the Heart," Bellah and his co-authors explore the tension between individualism and community in American society. The author states that the problem with modern individualism is that it seems unsustainable to maintain both public and private spheres. On the other hand, a return to traditional forms of individualism risks re- establishing discrimination and oppression. The text explores the theme of solitary heroism in American literature, exemplified by characters who withdrew from society to seek moral good: the cowboy archetype embodies unique virtues but is unable to fully integrate into society; the detective, a loner, fights against societal corruption, revealing the darkness beneath the surface of society’s elite. These mythic heroes represent the paradox of American individualism, because they serve society best by standing alone, yet embody selfless virtues. However, this individualism – though heroic – can lead to nihilism and despair. Lincoln embraced a similar kind of individualism. His commitment to a larger cause (belief in equality) kept him from despair. Toqueville highlighted a paradox: while emphasizing self-reliance and individual judgement, the new individualism paradoxically fostered conformity, leading some to seek confirmation from others. This has been a recurrent concern in American literature. The tension between individual autonomy and the requirements of community life is a central theme, and the authors prompt readers to reflect on the challenges posed by the pervasive influence of individualistic values in American society. The author explores the ways in which individualism is manifested, its impact on personal lives, relationships, and the broader community, and they consider the challenges it poses to traditional values. The argument revolves around the tensions between individual autonomy and the need for shared commitments. The chapter argues that while individualism has its merits, an extreme focus on personal desires and autonomy can have detrimental effects on social relationships and community cohesion. Bellah advocates for a nuanced understanding of individualism that strikes a balance between personal fulfillment and a sense of responsibility and commitment to others. Lastly, some people think that success is just about having a satisfying career, but this idea doesn’t always make people happy. Instead, some are starting to focus on having a comfortable life for themselves and their families. But this also leads to some problems: when people only think about themselves, they might start feeling like they’re missing other people, but fear that they would lose their freedom. 5. HERBERT HOOVER; The American System (1928) • President Herbert Hoover (1928): campaign speech in which he declares to be in favor of less governmental control (small government). The American system has proven to be the best because of its freedom of initiative and enterprise. Topic: The overarching topic is the economic and governmental philosophy that Hoover believes should guide the United States. Hoover argues for a cooperative relationship between the government and business to foster economic growth. While advocating for a degree of government intervention, he also emphasizes the importance of individual efforts and entrepreneurship in driving economic progress. Hoover stresses the significance of a balanced budget and fiscal responsibility. He believes in prudent financial management to ensure economic stability and prevent excessive government spending. But how did the spirit of capitalism develop? Young entrepreneurs altered their approach by intensifying supervision, adopting to customers' needs, and implementing low prices and high turnover, leading to competitiveness. This transformation was often met with unstressed opposition. Nowadays, religious implications no longer exist. Nation 1. J. HECTOR ST. JOHN DE CREVECOEUR, 1735-1813, what is an American? J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur, in his work "Letters from an American Farmer," explores the question "What is an American?" With this collection, he wanted to show what life in America was like. This is the third letter. Very different from William Bradford's approach (''full of wild beasts and wild men''). In this collection of letters, written in the late 18th century, Crèvecoeur reflects on the diverse and evolving identity of Americans. He describes the American as a unique individual shaped by a new environment, free from the constraints of the Old World's social structures and class distinctions. Crèvecoeur emphasizes the "melting pot" aspect of America, where people from various ethnicities and backgrounds come together to form a new, distinct identity. He highlights the multifaceted nature of American society in which Catholic, German, Lutheran, Low Dutchmen live in proximity and despite their distant religious views, they coexist peacefully. It also emphasizes the possibility for newcomers of independence, prosperity, and to get a better life through hard work. Crèvecoeur's portrayal of the American identity is one of optimism and potential, rooted in the vast and fertile land of America. The central argument revolves around the idea that America is a unique and exceptional place that transforms individuals into a distinct American identity. Crèvecoeur highlights the impact of the American environment, the fusion of diverse cultures, and the absence of Old-World social constraints in shaping the character of an American. America is the result of the English genius. There is a myth of classless society in which rich and poor are not so far from each other. We can also find the concept of American exceptionalism because it says ‘’we are the most perfect society now existing in the world’’. He calls America a ''great American asylum'', meaning that the country worked as a shelter for the poor people of Europe. 2. Richard P. Horwitz - Declaration of Independence, introduction in The American Studies anthology Document that was approved in 1786 and announced the separation of 13 North American and British colonies from Great Britain. The declaration inspired people to fight for change, especially against slavery since it talked about everyone having equal rights, which motivated abolitionists to oppose slavery. Before its approval, some parts criticizing slavery were taken out by the Congress. Even though Jefferson disagreed. He didn't want credit for it alone and protested when the Congress changed his words. 3. Declaration of Independence, main text The topic of the excerpt is the Declaration of Independence, and its primary argument revolves around the justification for the American colonies to separate from British rule and declare themselves as free and independent states. The main argument revolves around the assertion of the inherent rights of individuals and the colonies, the failure of the British government to address grievances, and the colonies' decision to declare themselves free and independent states. The central theme is the idea that individuals have inherent rights, and governments are instituted to protect those rights. The argument builds upon these principles to justify the colonies' decision to dissolve political ties with Britain. The grievances listed in the text highlight the various ways in which the British government, under the rule of King George III, violated the rights and autonomy of the American colonies. These include issues such as taxation without representation, interference with colonial legislatures, obstruction of justice, and the imposition of standing armies without consent. 4. America and the Transcontinental Enlightenment (Ratner-Rosengarten) The main topic of this essay is the way in which the adoption of European ideas of enlightenment were adopted to American society. America is the first to make the enlightenment ideas into governmental policies. During the 18th century, America became a place for European seeking change. ‘’All the world was America’’: this notion influenced American thinking, promoting, religious tolerance and the belief in mutual rights. According to Ratner-Rosengarten, America provided a vision of an ideal society, rooted in nature, that was very appealing to European thinkers; so, they placed this idealized society at the center of their writing. Ratner-Rosengarten explores the America's contribution to the Enlightenment in 4 major areas. She identifies these areas as "The Transatlantic Republic of Letters" (global exchange of ideas), the centrality upon "Universal knowledge", the "American Revolution" and the emphasis on Liberty and Republicanism, and the "War of Ideas" brought forth by the emphasis placed on Equality from the Bottom Up by the Revolution and following Paine's Common Sense. Enlightenment varied across nations, with America embracing religion while Europe leaned towards secularism. Despite the Enlightenment's emphasis on vision and knowledge, there were significant blind spots, especially regarding women's access to education opportunities. Judith Murray challenged these biases, highlighting the need for gender equality. Some used Enlightenment movement to oppose slavery, others to reinforce racial differences. Jefferson expressed doubts about the fairness of slavery in the eyes of a just God, despite owning a slave himself. Institutions like universities benefited from racial oppression and were built on Native American lands. Slavery played an important role in founding and constructing these colleges, which used enslaved individuals contributing to campus development. Even death did not release African Americans from serving the university because their bodies were dissected after death to be studied. Franklin adds some contradictions as well, because it was the embodiment of enlightenment ideals, but at the same time overlooked social inequalities. Suddenly, revolutionary ideas took on a new urgency. Thomas Paine was a game changer, resonating with colonists seeking independence. He urged immediate action for freedom and made the fight for independence feel globally significant. 5. Abraham Lincoln – The Gettysburg Address Topic: The Gettysburg Address focuses on the dedication of a cemetery for the soldiers who died in the Battle of Gettysburg during the Civil War. Lincoln emphasizes the importance of the dedication ceremony for the soldiers who sacrificed their lives on the battlefield, asserting that the living must commit themselves to the unfinished work and ensure that the nation experiences a "new birth of freedom." Argument: Abraham Lincoln's argument in the Gettysburg Address revolves around the idea that the United States is a nation "conceived in liberty" and dedicated to the principle that all individuals are created equal. He acknowledges the great trial the nation is facing in the form of a civil war, testing whether a nation founded on such principles can endure. The address concludes with a powerful commitment to maintaining a government "of the people, by the people, for the people". He introduces for the first time the idea of ‘’One nation under God’’. 6. Pierson; The idea of an American nation The topic is the concept of America as a nation-state, tracing its historical development from a union of states to a more consolidated entity, influenced by events like the Civil War and World Wars. Initially, the United States was designed as a republic meant to bind different states. This union was conceived by the founders based on the image of the empire, which was the widespread political organization across the world. Is America to be considered a nation-state? The United States cannot be considered a nation-state since it is beginning to lack a homogenous culture. The United States became a nation with the civil war, because all Americans participated in one way or another. So, the creation of a national identity is due to the experience of war which bounded Americans into a common national enterprise and transformed it into a nation. Lincoln was the first one to use the term ''nation'' in an alternative to ''union''. He had envisioned a nation held together by a ''political religion'' based on the Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Argument: America started its expansion from 1803 and it evolved in a way that makes it unrecognizable as a traditional nation-state. This has to do with the fact that the country was divided between free and slave states. Context often arose and the issue of native tribes continued to persist. The idea of an American identity that was developing after 2. Fredrick Douglas; What to the slave is the fourth of July? (1852) "What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?" is a famous speech delivered by Frederick Douglass on July 5, 1852. Douglass, an escaped slave and prominent abolitionist, learned how to read and write and he was one of the first to write about the situation of African Americans. He escaped in 1837 and found refuge in the Northern states protected by abolition laws. He was invited to speak at an event commemorating the signing of the Declaration of Independence in Rochester, New York. In his speech, Douglass critically examines the contradiction between the ideals of freedom and equality celebrated on Independence Day and the existence of slavery in the United States. In his argument, Douglass employs powerful rhetoric and vivid language to condemn the institution of slavery and implore his audience to reconsider their complacency in the face of such injustice. He emphasizes that for the enslaved, the Fourth of July is not a day of celebration but a painful reminder of their continued subjugation. He addressed the nation's struggle for independence from British rule, paralleling it with the fight against slavery. He emphasized the determination of the nation's founders to challenge unjust governance and then highlighted the current government's potential blindness to the lesson of the past. He highlights the hypocrisy in celebrating the Declaration of Independence while denying its very rights to a significant portion of the population. He points out the harsh reality of enslavement, oppression and the denial of basic human rights faced by African Americans opposed to the celebration of the 4th of July. He denounces the Church and religious leaders for their complete and formidable Christian principles. He expresses hope for the nation's future. 3. Du Bois; The souls of the black Folk The main topic of Du Bois's text, "The Souls of Black Folk," is the complex and nuanced experience of African Americans in the United States, particularly in the aftermath of slavery. Du Bois explores the multifaceted challenges faced by the black population, including issues of identity, education, and the persistent struggle for freedom and equality. Du Bois's main argument in "The Souls of Black Folk" revolves around the concept of double consciousness, which refers to the experience of feeling a twoness — being both American and Black — and the challenge of seeing oneself as an individual while also being viewed through the eyes of others (lead to a fracture within the individual). Furthermore, Du Bois argues for the importance of education and intellectual advancement as crucial tools for empowerment and social progress. Shift from the pursuit of political power to the quest for education as a mean to uplift the community. The Bois argues that societal prejudices and systematic degradation that sought doubt and lowered aspiration within the African American community. The ultimate goal is the realization of human brotherhood and development. Despite the hopeful pursuit of voting rights post-Civil War, African Americans had to face disappointment. 4. Lipsitz; The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: Racialized Social Democracy and the "White" Problem in American Studies The main topic of George Lipsitz's essay is the examination of the concept of whiteness and its impact on American society, particularly within the field of American Studies. Lipsitz explores the idea of a "possessive investment in whiteness," which refers to the social, economic, and political benefits associated with being perceived as white in America. Whiteness is a manufactured idea that allows the exploitation of the other. (((This is a fundamental part in “Between the world and me”, with Coates often referring to people who think of themselves as white.))) Lipsitz argues that whiteness is not just a biological or skin color category but a social and political construct with significant privileges. He contends that the advantages associated with whiteness are deeply embedded in various institutions and practices, contributing to the perpetuation of racial inequalities. The author also argues that these practices have evolved in such a way as to not appear racist at all, leading many “white” Americans to ignore their existence completely. The essay delves into the historical roots of whiteness and its role in shaping social structures, policies, and cultural norms. Furthermore, Lipsitz critiques the field of American Studies for its historical neglect of the racialized aspects of whiteness, asserting the need for scholars to address the "white problem" in a more comprehensive manner. ECONOMIC SEGREGATION: One of the ways this covert systematic racism is best exemplified was through the Federal Housing Act of 1934: During the great depression, the government offered to use money insure loans made by private lending agencies, such as banks. This allowed millions of Americans to get the loans needed to afford housing. However, these insured loans were only given out to certain areas selectively, according to race, as indicated by the overtly racist risk categories of the FHA (a concept also called “redlining”, as we saw last week): as we can see in the picture, many districts that were mostly black or mixed were considered too risky to apply for these loans. As a result, millions of these loans were only given to poor WHITE Americans moving to the suburbs. The subsequent movement of white populations to the suburbs helped many different ethnic groups become “white” (reinforcing the idea of the fictive identity of whiteness present in the previous point). Meanwhile black communities, whose decreasing population lead to a loss of political power, could be easily victimized through a variety of means: as less government money allocated to necessary facilities, such as water and sewage systems, and lowered health concerns regarding garbage disposal, with them being more likely to be placed next to hazardous landfills. Lipsitz argues that many discriminatory practices had the express intent of specifically benefiting the wealthy: for example, urban renewal projects tended to destroy poor black communities in order to create commercial buildings and luxury housing, rather than providing affordable homes for workers. This trend would only be exacerbated during the neoconservative Reagan administration of the 80s, with policies: the material gain through covert racism is shown through the increase of the value of invested income at the expense of wage income, while policies that hurt all poor people (especially the “tax reforms” of 1980 that incentivized stripping companies of their assets rather than providing new job opportunities) L. argues that the fact that this kind of racism was not overt has allowed it to be ignored by the larger “white” community. However, the inequality was undeniable, so the white community would justify it in two ways: the disadvantage of the black community in the housing on job market is due to a lack of personal values (such as industry) or family values, and inversely that all the good fortune of the white community is based on their inherent superiority and better values. As institutionalized racism seems to have been solved by the Civil Rights act of 1964 and the Voting Rights act of 1965, this has lead to the practice of associating the grievances of the African-American population exclusively with slavery. The summation of these beliefs is that racism has altogether been solved, at least on a grand level, which can lead to the idea that African-Americans deserve no special treatment or benefits in the present day, leading to opposition to policies that benefit them (such as affirmative action, which us seen as an attack on meritocracy ) and resentment when it comes to having to recognize the legacy if oppression, sometimes leading to violent reactions. What can be done about this? This kind of belief can only be overcome through the initial concept of “presence of mind”: the need for modern America to understand how a racist infrastructure has continued to exploit and victimize African-American citizens for the material benefit of the “white” population (the titular “possessive investment in whiteness”), with the hope that this understanding will fuel pan-ethnic antiracist movements that fight for justice for all and focus on the economic problems that truly afflict the country. 5. Morrison - Making America White Again The author argues that Trumpism is yet another iteration of America’s possessive investment in whiteness. 6. James Baldwin - My Dungeon Shook: Letter to My Nephew This letter is part of his book "The Fire Next Time," which was published in 1963. The letter is addressed to his nephew and the topic is that of race, identity, and the challenges faced by African Americans in the United States. He prepares his nephew for the racism he will encounter throughout his life. The primary argument in the essay revolves around the urgency for self-awareness, resilience, and an honest confrontation with the historical and contemporary realities of racism. Baldwin implores his nephew to understand the significance of his identity and heritage, emphasizing the need for courage in the face of systemic oppression. The title "My Dungeon Shook" metaphorically conveys a sense of confinement or oppression, suggesting the weight of historical struggles and the ongoing fight for racial equality. "nostalgic mournfulness" suggests an examination of the profound longing for a distant place, exploring how the immigrant's connection to their homeland, real or imagined, influences their perceptions, emotions, and sense of belonging in the adopted urban setting. The title also suggests the immigrant's sense of displacement. The communities that Roth describes in his book spoke little English, mostly Yiddish (Germanic language spoken by Jewish communities). He didn't make realistic representation of these communities. David speaks a very broken English. The book had to be made accessible to the average American to read. Debates persist whether it should be regarded as a Jewish novel or a representative of American literature. He requires the leader to be familiar with Jewish culture to fully appreciate the motives and patterns within the text. The narrator feels the need to explain the Jewish symbols and rituals, but it does not do the same with the Christian ones. So, there are some passages made for the English-speaking outsiders, and others which favor a polyglot reader. A Roth presents the immigrants through some stereotypical descriptions. The Italians dance for joy, the Jews weep, etc. David embodies the second generation of immigrants. He quickly adopts to the new world. Compared to his parents, he becomes their teacher at times. He does not share the same kind of nostalgia for the old country because he has forgotten. American Century 1. Henry Luce; The American Century Luce's concept of the American Century became a widely discussed and debated idea, which reflected a sense of American exceptionalism and a belief in the nation's capacity to lead the world toward a more democratic and prosperous future. The topic of Henry Luce's essay "The American Century" revolves around the assertion that the 20th century was destined to be dominated by the United States, emphasizing the nation's unique role in shaping global events. He discusses how America should approach World War II. America is not in the war yet, but he states that it will eventually be. Luce says we should come up with a solution so that there won't be another world war. We need freedom to fulfill the dream of an abundant life. We are responsible for keeping the peace. It is time to take a decision and play an active role in it (interventionism). People like Hitler, Mussolini, Lenin should be replaced, and instead American democracy should take place. He says the 20th is the first American century because America is a dominant power in the world. Luce argues that America should join the allies in the effort against nazi Germany and by doing so take the lead in the global panorama, exporting its form of democracy and its freedom (which he saw as the only way economies would prosper) throughout the world. According to him, as a world economic power, America must reject isolationism and accept internationalism. He adds that it already exists through jazz, Hollywood movies, American cars, etc. Luce argues that the U.S., with its economic power, technological advancements, and commitment to democratic ideals, should actively engage in international affairs to lead the world toward peace and prosperity. The essay expresses a vision of American exceptionalism and advocates for a proactive stance on the global stage during a crucial period marked by World War II. First, “the American century” refers to the period of time named in Luce’s editorial during which the United States emerged as a political and economic hegemony and a new generation of writers, filmmakers, plastic artists, and innovators took center stage in the cultural theater. Second, the phrase “the American century” names the period during which American studies as an institutional practice is consolidated and flourishes, with the logic of the phrase playing a powerful role in framing the way the new academic field imagines and constructs itself. (Brian T. Edwards) 2. Alan Brinkley; The concept of an American Century, 2003 Topic: the origins and evolution of the ideas around the concept of the American century. (idea that the 20th century was a period during which the United States played a central and influential role in shaping global affairs). Argument: The American century was the expression of a cultural project that aimed to convince both Americans and the rest of the world of the country’s great moral power and the need to export its model worldwide for peace and prosperity. To do so, the American Century theorists had to gloss over and outright omit those aspects of American society that could result controversial and ruin the façade of moral greatness they were trying to portray. In the essay, the author describes the origins of this concept, citing both Henry Luce and Henry A. Wallace’ essays, which prove how the concept of the American Century is not the product of the Cold War but goes back to earlier moments. Brinkley suggests that the American Century theorists were never able to produce a definition of the American creed without ignoring the considerable conflict and diversity and injustice that laid beneath the surface of American life. Moreover, Brinkley endorses the idea that 1940s internationalists (who embraced the idea of America stopping being isolated), created both a new national image but simultaneously sustained the nation’s insular self-regard and isolation. In his opinion, Luce and his book echoed a paternalistic missionary rhetoric reflecting a desire for Americans to not only lead but actively shape the world based on its perceived moral and cultural superiority. The book aimed at awakening Americans from indifference to embrace a mission based on their core values. It envisioned a future in which America's idea world lead global progress. Henry A. Wallace distanced himself from Luce's imperialistic rhetoric. The concept of American century predates and defines the Cold War. The portrayal of an idealized American creed clashed with the underlying conflicts and injustices of American society, leading to debates over what truly repressed American freedom. 3. The Force of American Modernity: World War II and the Birth of a Soft Power Superpower, by David W. Ellwood In this essay Ellwood details how after WWII, America utilized its soft power (perfectly exemplified by the Marshall Plan) to export its models of capitalism and liberal democracy in the Old Continent. The topic centers on the impact of World War II on shaping American perceptions of modernity and its subsequent efforts to export these ideas globally. He argues that this process of subtle influence and imposition was not as smooth as the myth surrounding the Marshall Plan postulates. It emphasizes the efforts made by the Marshall Plan to teach Europeans the link between economic progress and democratic stability, encouraging them to emulate the American standard of living. However, these propositions face resistance and skepticism in Europe. Several waves of resistance to the American model of capitalism emerged in Europe, and Elwood points to the 1990s as the period in which fear for the loss of sovereignty and traditions brought to the biggest amount of political conflict. Importance of the role of the United States in shaping the post-World War II international order and preventing conflicts through the export of its understanding of the connection between economic progress, capitalism, and the survival of liberal democracy. Luce had understood American influence in projecting its popular culture across the globe. 4. Brian T. Edwards; "After the American Century", 2016. The topic is the decline of America’s cultural hegemony in the current digital era and the consequent loosening of its soft power over the rest of the world. Edwards argues that this decline, conceptualized as “the end of the American century” is visible in the way American cultural artifacts are digested by other countries (specifically countries that are not politically and economically aligned with the US) and cultures and reproposed in a way that is detached from the source culture, devoiding them of their Americanness while charging them with other new meanings. In fact, digital technologies and the democratization of cultural access contribute to the unpredictable circulation and transformation of American cultural forms in the global arena. It focuses on how American cultural elements are being used and transformed in North Africa and the Middle East. Edwards shares personal experiences from his research trips, such as a visit to Rabat, Morocco, where he observed the paradox of the decline in enthusiasm toward the United States despite the increasing incorporation of American elements in Moroccan culture (since the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the impact of events like the release of the controversial film "Innocence of Muslims" in 2012). Before this movie, Arabs were influenced by the and now they're distancing from it. The film had relationships amongst nations, cultures and histories. She contends that the traditional, nation-centric approach in American Studies has limitations and that a transnational perspective allows for a richer understanding of the complexities of American culture. Fishkin suggests that scholars should explore the ways in which American literature, history, and culture intersect with and are influenced by global forces. She advocates for a more inclusive and diverse approach that considers the experiences of marginalized communities and recognizes the transnational flows of people, ideas, and cultural practices. Consequences: With the transnational at the center of the field, the important body of American literature written in languages other than English will be recognized; moreover, it will be recognized that scholars working outside the geographical boundaries of the US have just as much to contribute to American Studies as those within its borders. 5. MONICA HANNA, JENNIFER HARFORD VARGAS, and JOSÉ DAVID SALDÍVAR, Editors. Junot Díaz and the Decolonial Imagination (2016). Topic: The central topic of the book is the examination of Junot Díaz's literary contributions from the perspective of decolonial theory. The editors and contributors engage with Díaz's writing to understand how it reflects and challenges colonial legacies, addresses issues of identity, power, and belonging, and contributes to the broader decolonial discourse. Argument: The various essays in the collection likely present arguments that demonstrate how Junot Díaz's works, including his acclaimed novel "The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao" and other writings, engage with decolonial themes. This involves analyzing how Díaz portrays the experiences of Dominican and Dominican- American characters, addresses historical traumas, and challenges dominant narratives. The collection explores how Díaz's storytelling, language use, and narrative techniques contribute to a decolonial imagination that seeks to deconstruct and reimagine the cultural, social, and political landscapes. He used the colonial imagination as a critical tool for analyzing the effects of colonial domination in the New World Americas. “The Decolonizer’s Guide to Disability” The text also discusses Fanon's writings and the connection between disability and colonization, criticized by some scholars for reducing disability to a metaphor of colonial oppression. It explores how Junot Diaz's fiction depicts disability and disease, connecting them to colonial legacies and the role of written narratives in maintaining power structures. The text questions whether Israel's stories are narrated by Yunior, potentially limiting Israel's agency as a character with disabilities. In his work Diaz focuses on building a bridge between the colonized Dominican Republic and the “imperial core”, the United States. He does so by utilizing the perspective of the main character, a recurrent one in all his works, and his family. Yunior de las Casas, just like Diaz himself is a kid born from a poor working-class family in the Dominican Republic which at a very young age moved alongside his family to the United States to pursue the dream of freedom and upward mobility that America sells to the same countries it actively helped destabilizing and impoverishing .Through the experiences and struggles of Yunior and his family, Diaz finds a tool he utilizes to analyse the traumas of diasporic families in dealing with poverty and a racist society embedded in hetero-patriarchal norms. The story is told through chapters in a nonlinear chronological order that moves from chapters set in Yunior’s early childhood in Santo Domingo to his father’s arrival and first struggling years as an immigrant in the United States. Another important theme expressed in Drown is that of disability. He does so through the character of Ysrael, a kid with a disfigured face which he covers up wearing a mask, and to whom two chapters of the book are dedicated. His condition can be both interpreted as a metaphor for the experience of minorities struggling to fit in a dominant culture and being outright rejected from it, or as a direct critique of the material conditions in which people from the global south find themselves in (as it was the result of pigs attacking him, it’s the result of poor living condition forcing the character to live in close proximity to livestock).