Water economics and policy, Appunti di Economia Ambientale

Scarica Water economics and policy e più Appunti in PDF di Economia Ambientale solo su Docsity! 1 1.THE GLOBAL WATER SCENARIO The availability of water is a critical issue as we consider both the current state of water resources and future predictions (we face the problem of water scarcity). Factors contributing to water consumption include population growth, increasing prosperity and changing lifestyles, urbanization, economic activities, and biofuel production. While the planet has a vast amount of water, only a small percentage (2.5%) is freshwater, with the majority being saltwater and only the 0.3% of that is available in lakes, rivers and reservoirs because freshwater is primarily found in glaciers, ice caps, and deeply underground reservoirs. If we consider the global scenario there is a problem of inequality among countries: a few countries (such as Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the USA) having abundant water resources, while an increasing number of countries face severe water shortages, with per capita availability below 1000 cubic meters per year. This inequality in water availability is a significant challenge, with 64.4% of global water resources concentrated in just 13 countries. Freshwater withdrawals, measured in cubic meters per year, encompass total withdrawals for agriculture, industry, and domestic uses. The withdrawals do not include evaporation losses or water from desalination plants, where relevant. The agricultural sector accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater consumption, particularly in middle- and low-income countries where it can reach 95%. In developed countries, industrial water consumption dominates, accounting for 59% of total freshwater consumption. The industry is the second largest water-consuming sector globally, utilizing about 22% of freshwater resources. Water usage varies by geographic area. Europe and North America have a significant industrial water consumption (52.4% and 48% respectively), while South America and Asia show a clear imbalance in favor of agriculture. Different countries exhibit variations in water use. For instance, in India, 90% of freshwater is used for agriculture due to limited industrial activities, while in Italy, agriculture accounts for 44% and in Germany only 3%. Water availability for domestic use is crucial. The minimum requirement to meet basic nutrition and hygiene needs is around 190 liters of freshwater per capita daily. However, over one in six people worldwide do not meet this standard. Average daily per capita water consumption varies significantly between countries, with developed countries using more water (e.g., 575 liters in the United States) compared to developing countries (e.g., 135 liters in India). Water scarcity is a pressing issue. The current high demand for water will further increase in the future, leading to a progressive scarcity in some regions. Water scarcity occurs when human and ecosystem water demands exceed available resources. Environmental scarcity refers to the withdrawal of more than 75% of river and groundwater resources, approaching or surpassing the sustainability limit. Incipient shortage occurs when over 60% of river water is withdrawn, leaving insufficient water for the near future. 2 Economic scarcity arises when human, institutional, and financial barriers prevent access to water, even if it is locally available to meet human needs. We speak of economic scarcity when less than 25% of the river water can be taken to meet human needs. From an environmental perspective, areas with water shortages include North Africa, certain parts of southern Asia, Australia, and the southeastern United States. Economically scarce regions are central Africa and parts of the Indian peninsula. The scarcity of water poses challenges not only in terms of economic efficiency but also in humanitarian and health terms. Estimates on population growth indicate that the global population will reach 9 billion by 2050. Currently, the global population already utilizes 54% of available freshwater resources. Additionally, the transition to a higher socio- economic status and changing eating habits have increased the demand for water-intensive products such as meat, milk, and sugar. Moreover, for the first time in history, in 2007, the urban population exceeded the rural one, with direct consequences in terms of infrastructures for access to water. Pollution and climate change also impact water availability. Pollution reduces the quality of water resources, while climate change leads to the contraction of land and sea covered by ice. Sea level rise affects coastal areas, increasing the risk of natural disasters in densely populated regions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts a rise in mean sea level of about 0.2 meters by 2030. Efficient irrigation techniques are essential for water conservation in agriculture. While rainwater supplies 80% of cultivated areas, irrigation is crucial for the remaining 20% and plays a significant role in increasing productivity and food security, especially in water-scarce regions. Future projections suggest that agriculture will continue to be the sector with the highest water consumption, while domestic water use will rapidly increase, surpassing the industrial sector. India and sub-Saharan Africa will experience the greatest increase in water demand for agriculture, while China will see the highest increase for industrial use. Due to population growth, high irrigation costs, inefficient practices, and competition for water, a significant portion (15%-35%) of current irrigation withdrawals may become unsustainable in the future. The prospective scenario for 2025 indicates worsening conditions in terms of water availability. Areas with withdrawal rates above 20% will expand globally, including the United States, Europe, Southern Asia, Africa, and the Indian peninsula. Water availability per capita is expected to decline in various regions. Africa's per capita availability will decrease from nearly 16,000 cubic meters in 1960 to less than 4,000 in 2025, Asia from 6,000 to 2,000, and the Middle East and North Africa from 4,000 to less than 2,000. This challenging future scenario necessitates wise choices and thorough analysis to ensure sustainable growth and access to food for a growing population amid diminishing water resources. Why is the demand of water increasing? First of all, because of human population growth and urbanization (we are changing our eating habits, we have larger opportunities because our welfare is higher than in the past → the socio-economic development is another factor), but also for the production of biofuels. 5 3.WATER AND THE THREE DIMENSIONS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT "The United Nations World Water Development Report," titled "Water for a Sustainable World," published in 2015 by UNESCO, highlights the critical role of water in sustainable development. The report explores the interconnections between water and various aspects of human life, such as health, food and energy security, urbanization, industrial growth, and climate change. It presents an overview of the global water resources and aims to provide data and information for policymakers and decision-makers. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that call for urgent action from countries worldwide. Among these goals, Goal 6 focuses on ensuring access to safe water sources and sanitation for all. This goal is crucial because the demand for water has surpassed population growth, leading to severe water scarcity for half of the world's population. Achieving universal access to basic sanitation service by 2030 would require doubling the current rate of progress. Efficient water use and management are essential to address the increasing demand for water, threats to water security, and the impact of climate change, such as droughts and floods. The global population using safely managed drinking water services increased from 61% to 71% between 2000 and 2015, with an additional 19% using basic drinking water services. However, 785 million people still lacked even basic drinking water service. The proportion of the population using safely managed sanitation services increased from 28% in 2000 to 45% in 2017, but 701 million people still practiced open defecation. Access to basic handwashing facilities at home remains limited, with 60% of people worldwide lacking such facilities. Insufficient progress has been made in implementing integrated water resources management, and most countries are unlikely to achieve full implementation by 2030. Water stress levels are high in many countries, particularly in North Africa, West Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia. Cooperation in transboundary basins needs improvement, as operational arrangements only cover an average of 59% of national transboundary basins. What are the effects of all of this? The consequences of inadequate water and sanitation are significant. Water and sanitation-related diseases remain major causes of death in children under five, with over 800 children dying each day due to poor hygiene. Access to clean water and sanitation is fundamental to achieving the SDGs, including good health and gender equality. Sustainable water management also facilitates better food and energy production, preserves ecosystems and biodiversity, and contributes to climate change mitigation. What would it cost if we don’t correct the problem? The costs of failing to address these challenges are substantial, both in terms of human lives and the economy. Over 2 million people die annually from diarrheal diseases, primarily caused by poor hygiene and unsafe water. Without improved infrastructure and management, these deaths will continue, alongside further losses in biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and overall prosperity. What can we do? To address these issues, civil society organizations should hold governments accountable, invest in water research and development, and promote the inclusion of women and indigenous communities in water resources governance. Increasing awareness and taking action through campaigns like World Water Day and World Toilet Day can also make a difference. What will be happen in 2050? While the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) helped mobilize efforts to improve access to drinking water supply and sanitation, a broader and more detailed framework is necessary in the post-2015 6 development agenda. Looking ahead to 2050, a sustainable world should prioritize human well- being, ecosystem integrity, and a robust economy in water management. This includes ensuring reliable and affordable water supply and sanitation services for all, developing human settlements in harmony with the natural water cycle, and implementing integrated approaches to water resources development and management. (reduce vulnerability and improve resilience to water- related disasters.) The world is facing increasing risks of water pollution and severe water stress, leading to local water crises that impact public health, environmental sustainability, food and energy security, and economic development. Despite the recognition of water's crucial role in sustainable development, its management and provision of water-related services are often neglected in public perception and government priorities. Water scarcity affects over 748 million people without access to improved drinking water sources, and billions lack access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities. In 2012, 2.5 billions people did not have access to an improved sanitation facility. What is the relationship between the water and poverty? Poverty and water scarcity have a two- way relationship, as poverty can drive pollution and unsustainable use of water resources and poverty can also render existing investments in water less efficient, since households and communities often find it difficult to finance, operate and maintain infrastructure such as rural water pumps. Investments in water supply, governance, and financing are essential for reducing poverty and promoting equitable access to water resources. Weak governance, in combination with low incomes and costs of services, make it much harder for poor people to acquire sustainable access to water. In many developing countries, there is a wide gap between rich and poor. This means that access to good schools, health care, electricity, safe water and other critical services still remains elusive for many people who live in economies on the rise. The Global Risks 2014 report finds that income disparity is the risk most likely to cause an impact on the global scale in the next decade. More than 80% of the world’s population live in countries where income differentials are widening. To maintain economic growth, it is crucial to enhance equity, promote citizen participation, address environmental pressures, and manage demographic changes. Water resource allocation often lacks equity, with marginalized groups being excluded from access and decision-making processes. Non-inclusive growth, inappropriate water allocation, and increasing demand from various sectors can lead to social instability and conflicts. Effective water allocation mechanisms that consider the interests of the poor are necessary to mitigate grievances and ensure sustainable water management. Investing in improved water management and services is vital for poverty reduction and sustainable economic growth, providing direct benefits such as better health, increased productivity, and reduced health costs for poor communities. Water management contributes to four key dimensions of poverty reduction: 1. Enhanced livelihoods security relates to incentives provided to poor people to develop abilities and make use of their assets to earn an acceptable living. 2. the status and integrity of ecosystem services on which poor people are directly dependent 3. food production activities including irrigation, rearing of livestock, aquaculture 4. Reduced health risks relates to mitigating the social and environmental factors that put poor and vulnerable groups Water interventions contribute to livelihood security, reduced health risks, increased access to food production, and enhanced economic opportunities. Access to safe water, basic sanitation, and improved hygiene is crucial for improving health and reducing poverty, making it an attractive investment with a high rate of return. 7 Additionally, designing water infrastructure and management systems to reduce vector-borne disease transmission can alleviate poverty and improve public health. The summary you provided highlights the importance of reducing vulnerability by addressing risks and impacts related to politics, economics, and the environment, particularly in the context of water-related disasters. It emphasizes that floods, droughts, ecosystem degradation, rainfall variability, water pollution, and land degradation can hinder development and perpetuate poverty. To combat these challenges, it is crucial to invest in improved water storage, flood management, and poverty reduction strategies. The text emphasizes that economic growth is vital for poverty reduction, but it must be accompanied by effective water management and service provision. Water plays a catalytic role in generating new livelihood opportunities, supporting entrepreneurship, and fostering economic growth at various levels. Local entrepreneurs and the untapped potential of their initiatives can contribute significantly to job creation, economic returns, and regional benefits. Major water infrastructure projects can also have substantial economic and security-related advantages at the national and regional levels, particularly in terms of food and energy security. However, these investments require proper impact assessments and collaboration with other countries, and they should be complemented by smaller-scale investments in irrigation, power generation, institutional development, market access, and capacity building. A diversified investment strategy is required to make good progress in reducing poverty. The summary emphasizes that water resources and infrastructure are essential for both developed and developing economies, as they support economic activities, trade, and sustainable development. Investments in water supply and irrigation yield high economic returns and contribute to food security and poverty alleviation. The example of groundwater development demonstrates the socio-economic benefits it brings to rural communities, while small-scale irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia leads to improved agricultural yields and reduced climate risks. Moreover, water development has long-term positive spill-over effects on the entire economy. Wise investment in water infrastructure and sound water management are crucial for facilitating necessary structural changes in developing and intermediate economies. Provision of basic water and sanitation services is essential to unlock economic growth potential, break the cycle of poverty and low productivity, and improve health and educational opportunities. Gains in terms of time-saving, improved health and more effective learning demonstrate that improve access to water and sanitation is one of the more labour-saving solutions. It has the twin effect of (a) freeing resources for the production of food and other goods and services; (b) expanding the productive potential of the economy by indirectly enhancing human capital. The provided text highlights various aspects related to WATER INVESTMENTS AND THEIR IMPACT ON ECONOMIC PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT. It emphasizes that the success of water investments is context-specific, and countries may prioritize different types of infrastructure investments based on their specific needs and goals. However, there are challenges that can hinder the effectiveness of these investments, such as inadequate attention to water availability and protection, lack of institutional capabilities, affordability issues, and high capital and running costs. Despite these challenges, investing in water infrastructure is considered a wise policy option with significant economic benefits. For instance, an analysis of Africa's irrigation needs demonstrates attractive internal rates of return, ranging from 12% to 33%. The economic rates of return for water supply and irrigation projects compare favorably with those in other infrastructure sectors. 10 diamonds, minerals, and oil, as well as scarce resources like fertile land and water. Economic development can contribute to ecosystem degradation, but healthy ecosystems are crucial for sustaining economic development. The challenge lies in raising awareness of the economic value of healthy ecosystems. Human- built infrastructure, such as dams, can contribute to biodiversity loss and degradation of ecosystem services, but at the same time, it depends on these services for its functionality. Dams can disrupt the flow of nutrients and sediments, impacting downstream fisheries and agriculture. Managing water resources requires finding a balance between built and natural infrastructure to ensure the provision of their respective services. Water is a vital resource for industrial and manufacturing processes, but the discharge of untreated wastewater can cause environmental damage. The industrial sector has a corporate social responsibility to ensure acceptable water quality and cover the costs of corrective actions. Cleaner water influent can also benefit manufacturing processes by reducing the need for costly water treatment. 3.Poor water management, particularly in the context of wastewater, leads to the pollution and contamination of ecosystems, resulting in social and economic costs. It is more expensive to restore and rehabilitate degraded ecosystems than it is to preserve them in a healthy state. The failure to recognize the economic and social value of healthy ecosystems is a fundamental problem. The water management sphere faces challenges due to a lack of ecosystem knowledge among decision-makers and a shortage of resources and technical expertise to empower communities in ecosystem-based management (EBM). Insufficient resources, skills, and capacity. Current management practices have prioritized water quantity for human and environmental needs while neglecting water quality. Human uses have been prioritized over environmental needs, disregarding the symbiotic relationship between the two. Effective responses to ecosystem degradation are needed to prevent and mitigate threats to ecosystems. Ecosystem-based management (EBM) is crucial for water sustainability, and valuing ecosystems has shown that the benefits of investing in ecosystem conservation outweigh the costs. To address environmental challenges, water managers should incorporate natural infrastructure (NI) into their planning. NI solutions, such as creating green corridors and restoring wetlands, offer cost-effective and long-term alternatives to built infrastructure, providing a wide array of benefits and higher adaptability to climate change. What we can say about policy responses? Policy responses in EBM should prioritize trade-offs between agricultural production and water quality, land use and biodiversity, and water use and aquatic biodiversity. The focus on access to water and sanitation should be expanded to encompass broader sustainability issues. Collaboration, coordination, and stakeholder engagement are essential for effective policy formulation and compliance. Policies should aim to increase the participation of all stakeholders, including rural women and indigenous communities, and promote sustainable wastewater treatment. Collaboration with local populations and balancing trade-offs between conservation and economic activities are necessary for preserving protected areas. Actionable goals to address ecosystem and biodiversity degradation include eliminating harmful subsidies, promoting water efficiency and productivity in agriculture, reducing nutrient loading, mitigating environmental impacts in extractive industries, correcting market failures, and enhancing stakeholder involvement and accountability in decision-making. Ecosystem- based management should be adaptive and incremental, starting with specific objectives and gradually expanding to address more issues. 11 4.ADDRESSING CRITICAL DEVELOPMENTAL CHALLENGES 1.WASH The Part I of the Module reflects on the role of water, sanitation and hygiene (acronym WASH) in achieving sustainable development. Water plays a crucial role in various aspects of sustainable development, including human health, food and energy security, urbanization, industrial growth, and climate change. Part I of the module focuses on water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and its importance in achieving sustainable development. Universal access to safe water and sanitation is essential for poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Inadequate WASH has significant impacts on health, well-being, and economic productivity, affecting both lower-income and wealthier nations. Access to water and sanitation is recognized as a human right, but many challenges remain in ensuring universal coverage. Nowadays, much still needs to be done – 748 million do not use an improved source of drinking water and 2.5 billion do not use an improved sanitation facility. As reported in the last report published by World Health Organization titled WHO Water Sanitation and Hygiene – Strategy 2018-2025 – there are still gaps in financing water and sanitation for all. Indeed, the Target 6 in the Sustainable Development Goals aimed to reach everyone with WASH (Water, Sanitation and Hygiene) by 2030 is ambitious. Investments in water and sanitation services result in substantial economic gains. In developing regions, the return on investment has been estimated at US$5 to US$28 per dollar invested. Despite the potential for sizeable returns on investment, sustainable financing has not yet been attained in many settings, raising questions about who should pay and what the barriers to investment are. The quantities of water required for domestic uses are generally very small compared to those for agriculture and industry: 20 litres per person per day for drinking and personal hygiene is considered to be “basic” access. Yet the availability of water and sanitation services is intimately linked to the wider policies and practices in water management. Overall, addressing the challenges related to water, sanitation, and hygiene is crucial for achieving sustainable development and eradicating extreme poverty. Investments in water and sanitation have the potential for substantial economic gains, but sustainable financing and effective water management are key to bridging the gaps and ensuring universal access to WASH services. Changing climate is also expected to influence water resource availability, putting more pressure on already stretched resources and increasing the risk of contamination due, in part, to more frequent and intense flooding. As societies develop, their water usage patterns change. Global trends in the use of different water sources demonstrate a shift towards piped water on premises, especially in urban areas. In addition, household surveys show a marked increase in the use of packaged waters – bottles and sachets – in several countries. If we consider the increase in urban population in the period 2000-2010 we can deduce the strong growth of bottled and sachet water as a main drinking water source in urban settings. Anyway, in many lower-income countries bottled water is still a privilege of the wealthy. 12 For millions of people around the globe, water, sanitation and hygiene conditions have improved. Still, in 2015, 663 million people are using unsafe drinking water. The photographer Ashley Gilbertson says he knew his own family’s water use — 1,000 litres daily — in the United States of America would be more than in some countries where he travelled. Both sustainable development and human rights perspectives emphasize the importance of reducing inequalities and addressing disparities in access to services. The human right to water and sanitation provides criteria for evaluating the adequacy of WASH services, including cultural acceptability, reliability, functionality, and accessibility for all individuals, including the elderly and disabled. Disparities in access to WASH services, such as between regions, rural and urban areas, and socio-economic groups, are well- documented. To achieve universal access, there is a need to accelerate progress for disadvantaged groups and ensure non-discrimination in WASH service provision. While some countries have made significant strides in reducing inequalities, others have seen limited improvements for the poor and marginalized. Ethiopia's progress in reducing open defecation from 92% to 37% during the MDG era serves as an example of success. SDG 10 focuses on reducing inequalities within and among countries, recognizing that sustainable development cannot be achieved if people are excluded from opportunities and services. Income inequality continues to rise in many parts of the world, requiring transformative change, increased investment in health, education, and social protection, particularly for vulnerable communities in developing countries. Numerous challenges remain in achieving sustainable WASH services within environmental limits. The specific challenges vary across countries, with some prioritizing basic access while others aim to enhance services and meet environmental targets. As global coverage expands, the focus will shift towards attaining higher levels of service and ensuring environmental sustainability. Key targets for sustainable WASH identified through stakeholder consultation include universal access to basic water, sanitation, and hygiene, elimination of open defecation, reduction of inequalities, progressive improvement of service levels, and safe management of water and excreta. Achieving these goals requires a focus on service delivery, financial viability, and changing social norms, rather than solely relying on infrastructure development. 2.URBANIZATION The Part II of the Module 4 covers the challenges associated with rapid urbanization, describing how cities provide opportunities for more sustainable use of water. The rapid urbanization of cities, such as Mumbai in India, presents significant challenges at demographic, socio-economic, political, and environmental levels. The population of Mumbai has grown from 8 million in 1971 to 21 million today, reflecting the larger trend of urbanization worldwide. It is projected that by 2050, two-thirds of the global population will be living in cities. This growth is particularly prominent in developing countries, where the capacity to manage such rapid changes is limited, leading to water scarcity issues. Cities have a significant impact on the hydrological cycle. They extract large amounts of water from surface and groundwater sources, contribute to the expansion of impervious surfaces that hinder groundwater recharge and increase the risk of flooding, and release untreated wastewater that pollutes water bodies. The effects of cities on water resources extend beyond their 15 Overall, cities must prioritize climate change adaptation, strengthen water management capacities, and integrate water considerations into urban planning to ensure the sustainable and resilient use of water in the face of climate change and water-related disasters. In particular, 5 responses to the challenges are: 1. pro-poor policies for safe water supply and sanitation, 2. integrated urban water management, 3. urban water governance, 4. sustainable sanitation, 5. adaptation to climate change and water- related disasters. 1.Pro-poor policies for safe water supply and sanitation: Rapid urbanization is leading to an increase in the number of people without access to safe water and sanitation in urban areas. The proposed target of universal access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene encourages policymakers to address the needs of the urban poor and implement innovative initiatives. 2.Integrated urban water management: Experiences from integrated urban water management (IUWM) systems in various countries can contribute to the sustainable use and development of water resources. IUWM aligns urban development and basin management, integrating water supply, sanitation, stormwater and wastewater management, land use planning, and economic development. 3.Urban water governance: Equitable, participatory, and accountable water governance requires political commitment, appropriate policy and legal frameworks, efficient institutions, and capable human resources. Investments in water infrastructure, operations, and maintenance are also necessary. Strong leadership and good governance can improve the performance of urban water supply systems while addressing the needs of the poor. 4.Sustainable sanitation: Effective water resource management and pollution reduction call for investments in sustainable sanitation systems that are technically appropriate, economically viable, socially acceptable, and environmentally sound. Decentralized systems close to the source, treatment of wastewater, and integration with water resource and urban planning can be effective, particularly in poor and peri-urban settlements. 5.Adaptation to climate change and water- related disasters: requires significant investment. Urban areas will require a substantial portion of the funding for adaptation, offering an opportunity to build climate-smart cities. Early warning systems and adaptive measures can enhance resilience. Examples like Singapore showcase the use of diversified water sources to reduce vulnerability. By addressing these key areas, policymakers and stakeholders can work towards achieving sustainable water management in urban areas, ensuring access to safe water and sanitation, integrated approaches, good governance, and resilience in the face of climate change and water- related challenges. 3.Sustainable food and agriculture The Part III of the Module 4 focuses on the 5 principles of sustainable food and agriculture. By 2050, agriculture will need to produce 60% more food globally, and 100% more in developing countries. However, current growth rates of agricultural demands on the world’s freshwater resources are unsustainable. Inefficient use of water for crop production depletes aquifers, reduces river flows, degrades wildlife habitats, and has caused salinization of 20% of the global irrigated land area (FAO, 2011). To achieve sustainable agriculture that contributes to improving living standards and eliminates hunger and malnutrition, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) proposes five principles. These principles are as follows: 1. Improving resource efficiency 16 2. Conservation and protection of natural resources 3. Enhancing rural livelihoods and social well-being 4. Building resilience 5. Responsible governance These principles are interconnected and complementary, addressing environmental, social, and economic dimensions of sustainable development. They should be considered simultaneously. By adopting these principles and taking appropriate actions, it is possible to achieve sustainable agriculture that meets future food demands while safeguarding natural resources and promoting social well-being. 1. Improving resource use efficiency: Agriculture can increase water use efficiency by reducing water losses and increasing water productivity. The first option seeks to increase the efficiency of water use by reducing water losses in the process of production. The second option focuses on increasing crop productivity. This involves producing more crop or value per volume of water applied. 2. Conserving, protecting, and enhancing natural resources: It is crucial to protect and restore natural ecosystems that provide important ecosystem services. Efforts should be made to limit water pollution from agriculture through technologies and incentives and more stringent regulation. 3. Rural livelihoods and social well-being: Agricultural development should aim to benefit rural communities by increasing their access to resources, market participation, and job opportunities. Bridging the gap between urban affluence and rural poverty is essential, while incorporating measures for ecological well-being. 4. Improving resilience: Resilience in agriculture refers to the capacity to prevent, mitigate, cope with, and recover from risks and shocks. Enhancing the resilience of water users to extreme events and other challenges is vital for sustainable food and agriculture. 5. Effective governance: Key principles for effective governance in agriculture include participation, accountability, transparency, equality and fairness, efficiency and effectiveness, and the rule of law. Enabling policy, legal, and institutional environments are needed to achieve sustainability, striking a balance between private and public sector initiatives while ensuring accountability, equity, transparency, and appropriate legislation. 4.ENERGY AND INDUSTRY The Part IV of the Module 4 addresses the challenges of meeting rising energy demands without compromising the sustainability of freshwater resources and examines water’s role in the pursuit of sustainable industrial development. Energy and water are tightly interconnected, with nearly all forms of energy production requiring water, while energy is needed for water collection, treatment, and delivery. The challenges and responses related to the water-energy nexus can be summarized as follows: CHALLENGES: 1. Growing energy demands put increasing stress on freshwater resources, impacting other sectors like agriculture and industry. 2. Agriculture accounts for a significant portion of global water withdrawals, while the food production and supply chain consume a substantial amount of energy. 3. Decreasing the water intensity of fuel and power generation is a major challenge. 4. Climate change exacerbates risks and pressures, leading to interruptions in 17 electricity generation and constraints on water services. RESPONSES: 1. Technological advancements, including the integration of variable renewable energy sources and increased energy efficiency, are driving the evolution of the energy sector. 2. Water availability and impacts should be considered in energy policy-making to prevent unsustainable practices and ensure the availability of water resources for various users and the environment. 3. Even if electricity production from renewables like wind and solar PV were to double, there would still be a need to rely on water-intensive sources of energy to achieve universal access to affordable. The water-energy nexus requires integrated and sustainable approaches to address the challenges, promote efficiency, and ensure the availability of both water and energy for sustainable development. 5. SUSTAINABLE WATER CONSUMPTION In a world of limited resources, questioning ourselves about our lifestyles and our consumption patterns is necessary! The concept of “virtual water” has been theorized by Professor John Anthony Allan in 1993. The data showing Italian water consumption being 152 cubic litres a year per capita only reflects a partial consumption, referring only to the water used for our domestic purposes (drinking, cooking, washing, etc.). In reality, the water we consume is actually much more than that! We are not able to perceive it as such because it is water that we literally “eat”, embedded in an invisible way in the food we consume (e.g., one steak of beef, 300 g weight, “costs”, in terms of water, 4500 litres). Water footprint is probably a wider concept than that ”virtual water”, it is an innovative concept to analyse water consumption and pollution along supply chains, assess the sustainability of water use and explore where and how water use can best be reduced. This concept was theorized by Professor Arjen Y. Hoekstra, in 2002. He was the scientific director of “The Water Footprint Network” that is a non-profit organization founded in 2008, with the scope to coordinate activities in this field, to raise awareness of the “water footprint”.  The concept of “water footprint” is an analogue to the environmental and the carbon footprint, but indicates water use instead of land or fossil energy use. “VIRTUAL WATER” = the water required to produce the food, goods and services that we consume daily. “WATER FOOTPRINT” of a product = the volume of freshwater used to produce the product, measured over the various steps of the production chain. Water use is measured in terms of water volumes consumed or polluted. 20 regions with a more limited evapotranspiration, such as the north and center of Italy, had lower water footprints compared to regions with higher sunlight exposure and transpiration. The food pyramid is a concise and effective way to communicate the principles of proper nutrition and promote balanced eating habits. The Barilla Center for Food and Nutrition has proposed a food pyramid based on the Mediterranean diet, which not only considers nutritional science but also takes into account the environmental impact of food. The pyramid places foods according to their impact on the environment, specifically focusing on their water consumption. The food pyramid starts with foods of plant origin at the base, which are rich in nutrients, protective compounds, and have a lower energy density. As you move up the pyramid, the foods have a higher energy density and should be consumed less frequently. By using this indicator, an environmental pyramid of water is created to show the water consumption associated with different types of food. In the environmental pyramid, foods with the highest impact are placed at the top, while those with a lower impact are at the bottom. The analysis reveals that red meat has the greatest environmental impact, while vegetables, potatoes, and fruit have significantly lower effects. This new approach to the food pyramid highlights the convergence of two important goals: promoting health and protecting the environment. By considering both aspects, individuals can make choices that are beneficial for their well-being and sustainable for the planet. The impact of dietary choices on water consumption is evident, highlighting the environmental effects of eating habits. Two daily menus were created, both nutritionally balanced, to compare their water consumption. The first menu focused on vegetable protein and low animal fat, while the second included a modest consumption of red meat. The analysis of the "water footprint" of the menus revealed that even a modest inclusion of livestock products significantly increased water consumption, about three times higher than a plant-based menu. This is because animal products like milk and meat require substantial water resources due to the agricultural products needed to feed the animals. These findings indicate that menus with livestock products are less sustainable in terms of water consumption compared to those based on fruits and vegetables. It is clear that the dietary habits of individuals can have a significant impact on water availability. If everyone adopted the high-meat consumption diet typical of Western countries, it would require a 75% increase in water usage for food production. DOUBLE PYRAMID= the traditional food pyramid and an environmental pyramid. 21 6. GLOBALISATION: INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN WATER (VIRTUAL) The module 6 aims to point out that the trade in food commodities between countries and the different continents lead to a corresponding virtual water movement throughout the globe. “virtual water content” is the amount of water virtually embedded in the good, even if non physically presented in it, it is the water volume required to produce it. In past traditional economies, most food was produced and consumed locally and there were no great transfers in virtual water, moreover the population growth in a given geographic region was limited by the local water resource availability. In recent times, however, the global market trade in food has allowed local populations to be free from the restrictions of local water resource availability. International trade results in the virtual transfer of water from food production areas to importing regions, resulting in a disconnection between demographic expansion and locally available natural resources. Scientific research on the virtual water trade suggests that importing virtual water can help water-scarce countries efficiently manage their water reserves. A growing part of high water content goods can be produced in countries with a more efficient water use and exported to less efficient countries. Indeed, in theory the net effect of the world virtual water trade appears to reduce the overall use of water. However, the empirical evidence is different: major trade occur from relatively water-short regions to regions with abundant water resources. Well-known examples include China and India, but also Africa that is an exporter of virtual water to Italy. Three types of data are required to obtain the virtual water volumes: 1. world trade in goods: the data are updated every year for hundreds of products and refer to each country’s imports and exports. 2. internal production of the same goods (also here the quantity produced in each country and for each year is available). 3. virtual water volume contained in one unit of each good (for example, a tonne of wheat or milk) for each considered country. The virtual water content depends on many factors, such as climate, soil features, agricultural methods used and the irrigation infrastructures in the production regions. After collecting information regarding the green, blue and grey water footprint each good’s weight can be converted into its corresponding water content, and then, the global virtual water flows and the relative balances for each country can be reconstructed. The most used databank is managed and made available by FAO. Specifically, it provides information on 309 agricultural products surveyed over the period 1986–2010. We can see the temporal evolution of the traded volumes (thousands of cubic km): over time the volumes increased a lot, doubling over a span of 23 years. The same figure also shows the contribution of different product macro- categories: half of virtual water is traded through food plant products (cereals), 28% regards agricultural goods non-essential for nutrition (e.g., coffee, cocoa, etc.), 10% regards meat and animal VIRTUAL WATER BALANCE is the total virtual water volume involved in production, consumption, importation and exportation. 22 origin products, the percentage regarding meat tended to slightly decrease. Geography of net virtual water flows has changed over time: a few main exporters remained unchanged (Canada, USA, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, etc.), while most countries are net importers (Mediterranean and European countries). China become a virtual water importer; in India importation/exportation has tended to become balanced, however, at the cost of a marked over-exploitation of blue water reserves (groundwater). Virtual water trade gives rise to a very complicated global network. In 2010, Italy imported 91.4 km3 of virtual water from all continents, but mainly from Europe. Exportation of virtual water to the rest of the world, in 2010 it was 36.8 km3 , with more than 70% of this direct flow to European countries; the trend in exported virtual water was still more significant than for imports - the total flow in 1986 was a third of the 2010 flow. The net import flow (computed as import minus export) can be estimated by combining the imported and exported volumes from Italy in relation to each country for one year. The net flow from all the continents is positive, that is, Italian virtual water imports exceed its exports, but there are also important negative flows towards single countries such as the USA, UK, Northern European countries, China and Japan. Italy is an exemplary case of high virtual water consumption and dependence on food imports (high per capita consumption and a persistent reduction in land surface for agricultural production). Italy appears to be a country which is increasingly abandoning its agricultural-productive role and is instead increasing its commercial one. If we consider only the European and Mediterranean area: most of the virtual water imports within Europe originate from France, Spain, Germany and the net export flows concern UK and the Nordic countries. Turkey and especially Tunisia move huge volumes of virtual water towards Italy, France remains the preferred partner for Italian imports, the USA has been reducing their contribution to Italian imports while, on the contrary, Brazil is taking on a leading role. When exports are considered, Germany and France emerge as the main partners, Italy strongly increased its virtual water exports to the USA, but Italy also significantly increased its penetration into the Chinese market. One benefit deriving from the growing liberalization of international trade is the possibility of considering virtual water as an alternative water source: countries suffering from scarcity of water resources in their territory may reduce that pressure by importing goods with a high virtual water content from countries where this resource is more abundant, and exporting products with a lower virtual water content. International trade of virtual water also allows for savings in the volume of water consumed when a product is exported from a country with high productivity of water resources (for that particular product) to another with a low productivity, for example, in the case of import-export relations between the U.S. and Mexico (greater efficiency in the production of wheat, corn and sorghum found in the U.S., as compared to Mexico). The globalization of water use poses significant risks, primarily related to the importation of products with high virtual water content. This practice leads to the outsourcing of the indirect impacts of water exploitation from the exporting country to the importing country. In many exporting countries, water used in agriculture is undervalued, and the true costs associated with water consumption are not adequately reflected in the price of exported products. This situation creates imbalances in terms of efficiency and equity in trade. This phenomenon, often referred to as "water colonialism," can be seen as a form of domination by wealthier nations over poorer ones. As a result, the water reserves of poorer 25  Territorial monopoly: annuity that is privatized and regulated, applied in the United Kingdom, the ownership of the entire infrastructure and the control of water is in the hands of private operators; an enterprise has a monopoly on the water service in a specific area and the properties of networks, while the appropriate authority regulates the environmental and quality standards, the obligations of public service and any penalties.  Public ownership as in France; in this model, the responsibility for service provision and ownership of the plant is held by the public entity that entrusts the concession to private companies, which do not become the owners of the network but only are responsible for its management and the distribution of water, in return, they collect all the bills, determine the price and make a profit.  Public ownership and governance, such as in Italy and Germany, with the acquisition from the market of the resources necessary for service delivery; this model provides for the procurement of network management and the distribution of water to a private company that is paid directly by the State. The private company can take many forms, from a joint-stock company (=società per azioni) with public shareholders, to municipal companies and institutions of public law. The third meaning of privatization of water refers to the involvement of the private sector in financing infrastructures and services since the traditional channels of public finance are no longer sufficient to guarantee the necessary capital or are too influenced by policy choices. The involvement of private capital in financing infrastructures and water services has become increasingly prevalent, with a focus on reimbursement and remuneration procedures that align with the risk profiles and expected profitability of investors. Developed countries have transitioned from solely relying on public funding for the creation and development of basic infrastructures to gradually opening up to private capital. In developing countries, private capital has also started to play a significant role in financing basic infrastructures. International institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have played an important role in promoting the liberalization and privatization of water services. They have supported the establishment of partnership agreements between public and private entities, known as Public Private Partnerships (PPPs). The privatization of water resource has both advantages and disadvantages. Many municipalities grant water management contracts to private companies based on the belief that the private sector is more efficient than the public sector in optimizing water distribution, this also allows to shared maintenance costs of the water infrastructure in exchange for profit sharing and to potentially rationalize costs. However the privatization of water resources also carries risks. Some instances have shown that instead of reducing costs, privatization has resulted in significant price increases. Often, the privatization of water resources is driven by pressure from financial institutions like the World Bank, which promote private sector involvement as a means to introduce efficiency, growth, and societal value compared to the public sector. However, the accountability of private companies to their shareholders, whose primary concern is revenue generation, raises concerns about the suitability of this approach for water resource management. This is especially true considering the lack of robust and effective public control. The public bodies may not be able to properly handle a privatized service in which capital investments are very important and there have been many cases of inefficient management of public companies; if water is a good for all, only an efficient system of democratic control can address risks arising from an ineffective management of water resources, be it public or “privatized.” 26 8.ECONOMIC VALUE OF WATER RESOURCES The United Nations report, Valuing Water, tackled the “true” value of water to help us make better decisions on protecting, sharing and using it. The economic dimension of water is a key feature of INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (IWRM): maximization of the economic value of water along with equity and environmental sustainability. In national accounts, the value of water is generally accounted for as the price paid for water by different user groups – in other words, water is treated as any other product on the market. However, in most cases water prices do not properly reflect the actual value of water. As an economic good, water has in fact some unique characteristics. • Water is a heavily regulated commodity for which the price charged (if any) often have little relation to its economic value or even to its cost of supply; • Water supply often has the characteristics of a natural monopoly; • Property rights are difficult to define: many uses of water build on its characteristics of public good (e.g. flood mitigation) or collective good (e.g. sink for wastes); in addition, sometimes water is subject to multiple or sequential use; • Water is a “bulky” commodity (=bene ingombrante), with a very low weight-to- value ratio. (rapporto peso-valore basso) In general, water prices are associated to the costs of water supply (water prices should cover investment, operation and maintenance costs of providing water, as set for example by Article 9 of the Water Framework Directive). However water pricing often fails to capture the full costs and externalities associated with its use. Public subsidies and cross-subsidization mechanisms are commonly used, resulting in water prices that do not reflect the true economic impacts of water consumption, leading to prices that are below the actual cost of water use. Water use can have direct and indirect costs for other users and the environment, such as economic losses from excessive abstraction or pollution of surface water bodies. Moreover, water prices tend to focus only on the value of water for its direct uses, like human consumption, agriculture, and industry. They don’t include the value of indirect uses provided by water ecosystems, such as watershed protection, flood control, nutrient cycling, and non-consumptive activities like recreation and fishing. To fully understand the value of water, it is essential to consider the broader range of services and values provided by water ecosystems. We must then focus on water ecosystem valuation rather than water valuation: this allows in fact for a deeper understanding of the complexities of socio-ecological relationships, making explicit how human decisions would affect ecosystem services values and express these value changes in units (e.g. monetary), so that these can be incorporated in the decision-making process. The new economic approach to water allocation aims to assign appropriate value to water resources in order to maximize its benefits as a scarce resource. The traditional approach treated water as a free and unlimited resource with no cost at the point of supply. However, with the growing scarcity of water and increasing demands from various sectors, this traditional approach is insufficient as an allocation mechanism. The challenge lies in determining a mechanism for allocating water that prioritizes the diverse demands for it, including basic human IWRM is a process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare without compromising vital ecosystems. 27 consumption, environmental services, and water- intensive processes in agriculture, industry, power generation, navigation, and more. The value of water and similar natural resources lies in their ability to provide a range of services over time. For example, an irrigation water supply project not only provides water for crop production but also supports other economic functions such as domestic water supply, livestock production, fisheries, cottage industries, and various environmental services like preserving wildlife habitats and ecosystems. These services provided by water resources can be categorized based on the taxonomy proposed by Young (1996). • Commodity benefits - Those benefits derived from extractive (or consumptive) uses such as drinking, cooking, sanitation and contribution to production activities as well as nonconsumptive uses such as hydroelectric power generation and waterways transportation. • Aesthetic and recreational values: These economic benefits have a public good nature. • Waste disposal - Water bodies serve as a sink for carrying away and assimilating a wide range of residuals (human production and consumption) • Dis-benefits - Damages caused by flood waters, excesses of pollutants carried by water are dis- benefits, reduction of which increases welfare. The Total Economic Value (TEV) framework offers a systematic approach for assessing the comprehensive economic value of goods and services provided by natural resource-based systems. Various valuation taxonomies have been developed to categorize the economic values associated with water and other natural resources within this framework. The push for establishing a price-based allocation mechanism for water is based on the belief that recognizing the true value of water encourages responsible and efficient use while fostering innovation. Well-designed water tariffs can discourage wasteful practices and promote water conservation → use of water prices to incentivize efficient use. Traditional mechanisms worked well under simpler conditions, but the actual complexity poses challenges in developing a rational policy making. A combination of approaches is necessary to arrive at an acceptable alternative that addresses the diverse factors involved in water allocation. 30 scenario. We are actually observing decelerations in the rate of sea level rise. This difference is caused both by the different model used and the geographical area you are in. Rural areas are more vulnerable than the urbanized ones. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE. Global environmental change (including climate change, biodiversity loss, changes in hydrological and biogeochemical cycles, and intensive exploitation of natural resources) is having significant impacts on the world's oceans. PHYSICAL VULNERABILITY. The physical vulnerability of the coastal system is due to natural and anthropic pressures. • Natural pressures → For example big waves or other extreme events. • Anthropic pressures → definition of anthropic pressure derives from the definition of pollution, that is the presence in the environment, or the introduction into it, of products of human activity which have harmful or objectionable effects. Even wrong solutions to coastal risks can be considered as pollution because they affect negatively the environment. There is no coastline anymore and there is no beach anymore because it’s all covered by infrastructures. The design of the coastline must be eco-friendly. Building peers is a form of pollution because you modify the natural environment. If we introduce in the natural system a product of human activity we can increase the risk. HYDRODYNAMICS AND MORPHODYNAMICS: In order to understand the potential impacts, you have to know the hydrodynamics and the morpho dynamics. Morpho dynamics is the study of the interaction between the sea floor topography (both the emerged and submerged part of the beach profile) with the hydrodynamics process → motions of sediments. EROSION AND COASTAL FLOODING: this are the main risks that we can have on the coast lines → Coastal engineering, which is a branch of civil engineering, studies how to minimize these risks. We need to adopt a multidisciplinary approach. (knowledge of oceanography and meteorology, hydrodynamics, geomorphology, coastal engineering, marine biology). 31 A typical phenomenon is the run up of waves on beaches. Runup causes erosion of the beach. Coastal engineering is a piece of a more complex puzzle, it has reached high sophistication in developed countries, for example in the Emirates, but the situation in developing countries is terrible (Indonesia…). In developing countries, you don’t have any protection system at all, a big storm can have several impacts because of the absence of defensive structure. Coastal engineering: A branch of civil engineering concerned with the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of works in the coastal zone. The purposes of these works include control of shoreline erosion; development of navigation channels and harbors; defense against flooding; development of coastal recreation; and control of pollution in nearshore waters. Coastal engineering usually involves the construction of structures or the transport and possible stabilization of sand and other coastal sediments. The successful coastal engineer must have a working knowledge of oceanography and meteorology, hydrodynamics, geomorphology and soil mechanics, statistics, and structural mechanics. COASTAL PROTECTION SYSTEM: There are different examples of coastal protection systems, e.g., submerged breakwaters, including innovative coastal engineering, like nature-based solutions like the injection of a transparent mineral material inside dunes in order to protect them from the effects of wind and minor storms.  PORT PLANNING  INNOVATIVE COASTAL ENGINEERING: for example the MOSE project in Venice, this is an innovative system with the aim to protect the Venice lagoon from flooding. Nature based solution and environmental friendly solution for the restoration of beach system. Another example are the “reefs balls” under water, these applications provide many habitat and mitigation of damages, they don’t work as practical protection structures. Because of the complexity of the phenomenon that involves coastal zone, we need some basic knowledge of Hydrodynamics and Morpho dynamics. The wind generates the waves, they are travelling from offshore conditions, they can interact with the submerged beach profile → during the propagation waves are subjected to 4 types of transformation: 1. Diffraction 2. Refraction 3. Shoaling 4. Breaking: is a very important phenomenon, it strongly influences the coastal dynamics We need to use numerical models to better understand these phenomena, but also physical models (laboratory tests, we reproduce the phenomena by using scaled physical model test, for example we can generate waves artificially). COASTAL ZONE MONITORING and INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT (ICZM) we need to monitor coastal zone and manage them → The solution should be proposed by considering the management of the coastal zone, you cannot just propose the answer of a civil engineer, you need a multidisciplinary approach to solve this problem. 32 Balance of two things: development of the coastal zone and conservation of the coastal ecosystem → we need ICZM . The sustainability of the system does not depend only on the engineer, we need a group of professionals and scientists. Coastal and marine environment is very difficult to understand. Coastal zone monitoring is really important and has to be integrated in order to find the best solution to protect coastal zones: Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is a process for the management of the coast using an integrated approach, regarding all aspects of the coastal zone, including geographical and political boundaries, in attempt to achieve sustainability. It is important to involve all stakeholders across the different sectors to ensure broad support for the implementation of management strategies. EC Directive 2013: Member States will be required to cooperate to ensure coherent approaches across marine and coastal regions. ICZM is necessary to integrate the various approaches. Among the possible solutions there is also doing nothing. Another possible solution is removing the building, which could be easier than trying to reduce the energy of the waves. In some cases, though it might be impossible to remove the buildings. Sustainability of the system doesn’t depend only on engineering, but on the integration of various approaches.